Research context and process

Just as Kropotkin defined economics as 'a science devoted to a study of the needs of men and of the means of satisfying them with the least possible waste of energy' (O'Roirdan 1981: 9), this research study germinated with the idea of investigating the most sustainable approach to managing the by­ product of one basic h�an function, that is, egestion. The underlying motivation for undertaking the research study was to apply the principles of sustainilbility to excreta management. While the concept of sustainability

has been in vogue for some time, Hill (1998: 493) notes the absence of a

'logical and universally acceptable definition of sustainability' and the emphasis, up until now, on its economic aspects. The lack of a definitive interpretation has created a situation where the word can be applied to vague environmentally oriented notions of which nearly everyone

approves, whilst failing to address the underlying causes of environmental degradation. 'Sustainable' when applied to excreta management is intended to indicate a system that eliminates or minimizes non-renewable energy consumption and water use while maximizing resource and nutrient

conservation in the process of collecting, treating, and utilizing human excreta in food and fibre production

15.

Sustainability in this context also includes the protection and maintenance of human health while contributing to the preservation and productivity of biological systems 'measured as biomass per unit area per unit time, over many decades'16 (Hamblin

1991:6).

15 Fane et

aI. (1999:1) obseIVe that 'the criteria for a sustainable sewage system is the efficient recycling of nutrients from sewage back to agriculture, the efficient use of resources with only limited use

of non-renewable resources and tlle impact (no in ecological or diversity) on the surrounding ecology. with moves towards other sustainable or sensitive engineered systems, a common assertion is that sustainable sanitation will involve a decentralisation of sewage management'.

�, 16 It is difficult to conceive of something that is partly sustainable or moderately sustainable. Either a system is sustainable or it is not. Opinions will differ as to what constitutes a sustainable practice and methodolOgies to measure sustainaDility will vary. However, while modifyiIlg a current practice may reduce its environmental impact and slow down its rate of destruction it Will not be sustainable, unless there is the will and the skill to create the most sustainable system possible as a first principle. Jeppsson et aI. (1999: 2) point out that the concept of has been criticized as a western notion devised to maIntain the western way of

life.

There are the notions of anthropocentric and ecocentric sustainability to consider.

Sustainability is also intended to include the socio-cultural acceptance and

long term use of an excreta management system.

Creating sustainable systems will in many cases require significant

behaviour changes on the part of individuals and communities. Proposals that promise to deliver environmentally sustainable strategies, without

altering current behaviour related to resource and energy consumption or

environmentally destructive practices, are either dishonest or uninformed.

Galbraith

(1958: 92)

argued that:

If

we are concerned about our great appetite for materials, it

is

plausible to seek to increase the supply, to decrease waste, to make

better use of the stocks that are available, and to develop substitutes.

But what of the appetite itself? Surely

this is

the ultimate source of

the problem.

If

it continues its geometric course, will it not one day

have to be restrained? Yet in the literature of the resource problem

this

is

the forbidden question.

This is

not the place to discuss the fundamental psychological and

philosophical reasons that may underpin human craving

for

materials or the

motives responsible for many of the dysfunctional relationships occurring between human beings, planetary ecosystems, and other species.

Nevertheless, the way humans deal with daily biological functions such as

excretion could be indicative of the way more impersonal activities are

conducted.

If

there

is

a lack of motivation to attend to this essential intimate

activity in an environmentally rational and responsible manner, or a failure to create a truly sustainable strategy to manage the impact of mass

defecation,. it is difficult to imagine that sustainable systems will be

created

elsewhere.

Traditional agricultural systems that directly utilize human excreta as a resource contribute to the long term viability of agriculture by harnessing nutrients and carbon for food production while also eliminating a disposal

problem. However, there are often nutrient leakages and human health

dangers associated with the collection,. storage and re-use of human excreta

in traditional systems. While contemporary agriculture

has

developed

technologically efficient methods of producing food and fibre, it

has

done so

at great cost to the environment with a concomitant inefficiency in non-

>. renewable energy and resource consumption. Hence, the underlying

rationale for this research study was to place an excreta managem�t system

within

the overall framework of a sustainable agricultural system. The

premise

is

that Agricultural Sanitation systems should be judged not only on 13

their ability to safely re-cycle human excrement while improving hygiene standards in many communities, but also on their contribution to a sustainable food production system.

While it is beyond the scope of this thesis to investigate the practice of sustainable agricultural in any detail, in general terms a sustainable

agricultural system mimics more complex natural undisturbed ecosystems as closely as possible, while being largely self contained. Such a system

minimizes the reliance on external non-renewable energy and resource inputs such as fossil fuels, mineral fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides. It also maintains optimum yield and nutrient regeneration rates while preserving and building soil structure and fertility. Sustainable agriculture maintains biological diversity, and guards against soil loss and degradation, unbalanced water cycles and rising water tables, and is resilient I? over very long time scales. Agricultural Sanitation utilizing batch composting toilets is analysed in this light.

The aim of this thesis therefore, is to establish whether Agricultural Sanitation via on-site composting of human excreta in selected batch composting toilets described in section

1.1.1:

• provides a useful fertilizer;

• is a safe method of treatment and disposal; • is an example of a sustainable practice; and

• what factors contribute to successful excreta management technology transfers in developed and developing countries.

In the tradition of trans-disciplinary research and analysis, it is difficult to assess the fertilizer value of human excreta without considering all other aspects. This includes the treatment, disposal and human (socio-cultural) factors in excreta re-use in an Agricultural Sanitation system. The thesis investigates the use of human excreta as a fertilizer from the perspectives of historical and contemporary use, impact on human health, fertilizer efficacy, and the practical challenges associated with implementation. The research responds to a number of fundamental questions.

1 esilience is the ability of a system to return to equilibrium after shock or perturbation. 14

Can traditional methods of managing human excreta as a fertilizer provide solutions to contemporary excreta management problems? Does Agricultural Sanitation via alternating batch composting toilets produce an end- product posing no potential health risks to

individuals utilizing the toilets, or in the use of compost as a fertilizer? Does the compost produced in alternating batch composting toilets and applied to soils and plants have a beneficial effect?

What approaches can be taken to facilitate the implementation of Agricultural Sanitation over the long term?

To answer these questions, examples of traditional Agricultural Sanitation practises will be presented to illustrate historical and contemporary experience employing human excreta as a fertilizer. The results of trans­ disciplinary field research in Australia and the Pacific into the practical application of Agricultural Sanitation will be provided with particular emphasis on pathogen analysis, fertilizer evaluation and socio-cultural and institutional research.

Inter-disciplinary research is relevant to this human excreta management study since there are many complex factors comprising different disciplines involved in the theory and praxis of Agricultural Sanitation. According to Kramer and de Smit (1977: 7) trans-disciplinary research minimizes the risk of some aspects dominating the process, therefore ensuring an integrated approach that draws on relevant single disciplines to contribute knowledge and shed light on the total research problem. The trans-disciplinary, collaborative, process-centred research adopted for this doctoral study correlates with an Action Research approach since it:

pursues simultaneous aims of action (or change) and research (or understanding). It does this by using a spiral process which alternates between action and critical reflection as it seeks to improve both action and understanding at each cycle. It is typically flexible, qualitative and participative (Dick 1996: 1).

Action Research is a more methodical and rigorous application of the everyday human functions of planning, acting, observing and reflecting

(Kemmis and McTaggart

1988: 10)

while 'allowing researchers to participate and learn from the process' (Dunn and McMillan

1991: 10).

The overall ' research approach of this thesis is qualitative and process-oriented by dint of

the author's involvement in the process, and observation of, responses to, and evaluation of the research material. From the perspective of new paradigm research, reality is 'neither subject or object ... valid knowledge is a matter of relationship' arising from a dialectical process (Reason and Rowan

1981: 241).

Warren

(1990: 134-136)

describes a 'first person analysis as a legitimate social science methodology' because it 'gives voice to a felt sensitivity often lacking in abstract doctrines of traditional analysis and ethical discourse' and because it 'takes relationship seriously'. It also 'insists on the scientific importance of the personal' (Hallen

1992: 54).

While the general research structure of the thesis is qualitative and process­ oriented it is combined with more orthodox quantitative elements within the body of the study. The quantitative research is mainly presented in

Chapters Three and Four. The quantitative data and analysis does not pretend to be exhaustive. More research is required in these areas and each discipline deserves a thorough long term investigation in its own right. However, within the parameters of a trans-disciplinary study such as this, and considering the resources available, the scope of the quantitative analysis undertaken is thorough and adds credence to the research and the argument. During the course of the research for this thesis the most consistently stated need from people working in the water and sanitation field was for hard data relating to the effectiveness of batch composting toilets in producing a safe and useful product.

The breadth of the research undertaken for the study created some frustration since it restricted the possibility of conducting more in-depth investigation of each aspect. However, a broad perspective did provide the essential overview necessary for a deep analysis of the current challenges and future possibilities for the management of human excreta.

Comprehensively covering the different disciplines related to Agricultural Sanitation also provided a considerable challenge since the author had no formal training or academic background in the various subjects involved. Nevertheless, it was discovered that there are some advantages in not being trained in the particular related disciplines since such training can sometimes narrow the focus when applying specific expertise to trans-disciplinary experiential research questions.

Various aspects of the research were conducted both sequentially �d concurrently, each stage providing a platform from which to investigate the next stage. While there was an overall plan to the study, resource

constraints necessitated research opportunities being taken as they arose. Invitations were received and resources were made available from various sources for field research visits to Central America, Kiribati, Tonga, Vietnam and Northern Pakistan. The timing of these events influenced the direction of the research process to some extent.

Although qualitative trans-disciplinary research has an initial appeal, its execution is demanding:

Qualitative approaches beckon because they appear easy or natural. And were it not for the complexity of conceptualizing qualitative studies, conducting the research, analysing it, and writing it up, perhaps they would be (Wolcott

1990: 11).

In document Agricultural sanitation: From 'waste' to resource (Page 34-39)