The purpose of conducting this study was to explore ICT managers’ level of understanding of alignment between SMAC technologies and disaster response. Research has revealed the minimal value placed on investments in ICT advancements because of a misalignment between the ICT used by first response organizations and disaster response strategies (Vogt et al. 2011). However, misalignment has not prevented the federal government of the United States from pursuing expensive ICT projects designed to improve interoperability. The DHS continues to invest billions of dollars annually into improving the process of interoperability between state and local first responders with no return on investment (Goldstein, 2012, Moore, 2016, Peha, 2013). Without the ICT or strategies necessary to be effective during major disasters, first response agencies might not be able to save as many lives or prevent greater devastation from occurring.
Analyzing past research, I noticed that SMAC technologies had displayed the potential to close this gap, but research is missing on the application of SMAC
technologies in the context of the problem of the lack of interoperability between first response agencies. By creating a SMAC technologies and disaster response framework, the value of ICT initiatives designed to improve interoperability may increase because of lower ICT infrastructure costs, enhanced technology, and improved information sharing for disaster response organizations. The findings from conducting this study may help ad- hoc formations of disaster responders from multiple state and local agencies in the United States become more efficient at sharing information and deploying resources during major disasters.
A qualitative grounded theory approach allows the researcher to develop a new theory from the collection of data instead of being reliant on existing theory (Birks & Mills, 2011; Glaser & Strauss, 1967). I used a qualitative grounded theory approach and collect data from semistructured interviews with a purposive sample of ICT managers from a disaster response agency. I analyzed the data using open coding, axial coding, selective coding, constant comparative analysis, theoretical sampling, and memoing to attempt to generate a new theory. I ensured the credibility, reliability, and validity of this study by taking affirmative steps to protect the process and data from bias. I used data triangulation to protect the quality and truthfulness of the findings from this study. I used evidence from the two data collection sources. I collected data using an interview
questionnaire and documentation provided by the participants.
I begin Chapter 3 with a description of the research design and rationale, research questions, selection of research method, and role of the researcher. The next section begins with a description of the methodology. The next section includes the participant selection logic, recruitment of participants, instrumentation, and member checking. The next section describes the procedures for recruitment, participation, rationale for ground theory, Delphi technique, participation, and data collection. In addition, this section contains the relationship between the interview questions and the research questions, and the qualitative interview guide. The next section described the data analysis plan. I finish Chapter 3 with an explanation of trustworthiness and describe the procedures to ensure and enhance integrity and concludes with a summary.
Research Design and Rationale
Aligning ICT with business strategy to achieve organizational objectives is challenging because demonstrating the value of ICT is hard. For example, the DHS spends billions of dollars annually in the United States on ICT initiatives designed to support strategic frameworks. The initiatives are designed to ensure first responders can share information between agencies during a disaster. However, when a disaster of significant magnitude happens, the response effort is hampered in some way or lives are loss due to ICT failures (Comfort et al., 2012).
Employing SMAC technologies and interoperating with disaster victims might improve interoperability and increase the value of ICT to emergency management during disasters. However, currently, decision makers and first responders from disaster
response agencies do not have the training nor do they trust SMAC technologies. The problem is a gap in the information on ICT managers’ understanding of how to align SMAC technologies with disaster response. A SMAC technologies and disaster response framework would contribute to the ongoing discussion of the value of advances in ICT to disaster response. It is inevitable that SMAC technologies will play a role in the
outcomes of future catastrophes (Dugdale et al., 2012, Sarcevic et al., 2012). Therefore, answering the primary research and sub research questions are vital.
Research Questions
Research is about understanding an important issue (Stake, 2010), and the research questions need to align with the research paradigm and research methods
(Reiter, Stewart, Bruce, 2011; R. Yin, 2013). I addressed in this study the phenomenon of strategic alignment process between SMAC technologies and disaster response strategies.
ICT alignment, as defined by Henderson and Venkatraman (1993), is the degree of fit and integration across business and ICT strategies, business, and ICT infrastructure. The definition of ICT alignment from Luftman (2004) is the application of ICT where there is a need promptly and in congruence with business strategies, goals, and needs. The
definition of SMAC technologies is leveraging the strengths and interdependence of social media, mobile, analytics, and cloud computing to gain competitive advantages over other organizations.
I used a qualitative research methodology for this study. A qualitative
methodology was appropriate because the research questions were open-ended (R. Yin, 2013). Furthermore, the purpose of grounded theory was to generate a theory when there is scant information about a phenomenon (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). An in-depth
exploration of ICT managers’ level of understanding of alignment between SMAC technologies and disaster response is necessary, as there is scant literature on SMAC technologies and strategic alignment in the context of disaster response organizations in the United States. This qualitative study focused on a single research question and two sub research questions:
RQ1: What is the level of understanding of alignment between SMAC technologies and disaster response strategies for ICT managers from disaster response agencies?
SQ1: How does the prevalence of SMAC technologies influence ICT managers’ perspectives toward ICT initiatives and disaster management frameworks? SQ2: How can exploring ICT managers’ level of understanding of alignment between SMAC technologies and disaster response generate a new theory?
A qualitative methodology refers to the broad perspectives from which research makes the investigation, draws inferences, and views the problem (Stake, 2010). Qualitative data are not numerical data and may be in an unstructured form (i.e., notes, transcripts, interviews, emails, audio-visual artifacts, and so forth) (Kuckartz, 2014). A qualitative research approach is relevant in this study because to answer the research questions requires the understanding of the awareness and skill of the participants (Stake, 2010).
Selection of Research Method
The grounded theory approach allows the researcher to develop a new theory from the collection of data instead of data being reliant on the theory (Birks & Mills, 2011, Glaser & Strauss, 1967). According to Charmaz (1990), the purpose of grounded theory approach is to generate a theory in the case where not much is information is known about a topic. A grounded theory emerges from interdependent stages that are repetitive until theoretical saturation occurs (Bitsch, 2005). Therefore, developing a grounded theory is not an outcome but materializes from a process of simultaneous data analysis and collection (Burden & Roodt, 2007).
The grounded theory requires the systematic use of analytic tools to conduct a comparison of data (Urquhart, Lehmann, & Myers, 2009). The grounded theory approach to this study allowed me to attempt to generate a new theory by collecting data from ICT managers using a document review and semistructured interviews. There are three
different grounded theory research designs: (a) the emerging design, (b) the constructivist design, and (c) the systematic design (Miller & Salkind, 2002). Glaser (1992) advanced the emerging design, which allows the researcher to build a theory by what emerges from
data rather than existing categories. The constructivist design is a modern grounded theory design linked to a student of Glaser, Kathy Charmaz (Miller & Salkind, 2002). Charmaz (1990) argued for active codes because the individuals involved in the research study influence the process. For this study, I used a systematic grounded theory design from Corbin and Strauss (1990).
The application of grounded theory approach appears numerous times in information technology research (Urquhart et al., 2009). Matavire and Brown (2008) argued that IT systems processes generate varieties of data that apply to many types of circumstances. Comparative analysis by definition is congruent with the ever-changing environment of the information systems field (Matavire & Brown, 2008). According to Mavetera and Kroeze (2009), the collection of more data and adding it to the data set increases the understanding of the problem by the researcher. Both Mavetera and Kroeze as well as Zikmund, Babin, Carr, and Griffin (2003) asserted that grounded theory is a fit for environments that are constantly changing and experiencing uncertainty.
The sociotechnical theory grounds the study and provides a lens for understanding that a combination of technical, people, and organizational factors influence the
alignment process between SMAC technologies and disaster response. I conducted this study to allow ICT managers to describe from their perspective the factors that may increase alignment between SMAC technologies and disaster response actions. Learning about these factors may result in new strategies during major disasters that incorporates SMAC technologies and two-way collaboration with disaster victims.
Role of the Researcher
In qualitative studies, a researcher is a tool applied to complete the study (Sanjari, Bahramnezhad, Fomani, Shoghi, & Cheraghi, 2014). According to Unluer (2012), the credibility of qualitative research depends on researchers spelling out their roles in the research. For this study, I followed the grounded theory approach espoused by Corbin and Strauss (2008). Corbin and Strauss (1990) are responsible for the systematic design. A systematic design typically focuses on categorization and coding (Miller & Salkind, 2002).
The functions required of me to complete this study were that of a participant observer, interviewer, investigator, data analyst, and writer (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). I was responsible for developing the interview questions, documents review matrix, selecting the population, and sampling the participants for this study. I used the Delphi technique to gain consensus from a panel of experts to validate the interview questions and the document review matrix. I was responsible for conducting the Delphi technique to ensure the interview questions, and document review matrix is relevant, does not lead the participant, and to mitigate bias in the interview questions (Gobo & Mauceri, 2014). I was responsible for certifying the potential participants who meet the criteria for selection and then recruiting them for this study. I was responsible for obtaining
permission to conduct the study from the participating organization and obtaining written consent from the participants. I collected data from multiple sources (R. Yin, 2013). I collected data by collecting documents and conducting semistructured interviews with the participants. I transcribed, coded, and analyzed the qualitative data collected from the interviews to determine the major themes and findings of this study. Finally, I protected
the participants from bias, protected their identities and privacy, and protected the data collected from the participants.
At the time of conducting this research, I am an ICT project manager. I am responsible for a variety of ICT projects designed to improve interoperability between two or more separate organizations during a crisis. In addition, I was formerly a
Department of Defense first responder. Thus, I bring a practical experience and as a user in understanding the challenges of implementing ICT to allow leaders and practitioners to interoperate across diverse organizations during a major crisis. My profession has
brought me into contact with different types of first response agencies, international institutions, and nongovernmental organizations. The one exception is I have no direct experience with state-level first response organizations in my current role as a project manager or former role as a first responder. However, my personal and professional bias may influence the collection of the data and analysis. I addressed how I managed this bias further in this section.
My professional experience with first response agencies at the state level has been in business development. I spent 2 years in the field of business development marketing ICT to first response agencies. In the course of the project with a federal government customer, I have had technical briefings and demonstrations with first response
organizations from the federal level to the state level in Hawaii. I have had no other type of relationship with members of either the federal or state first response organizations. Because of this prior relationship, I have established credibility with leaders from the organizations that recruited the population I needed for this study. To manage my relationship with these organizations, I used purposive sampling strategy.
Because I am the participant observer, interviewer, investigator, data analyst, and writer, I made certain I did not provide undue influence on the participants (Golkar & Crawley, 2014; Houghton et al., 2013). To manage the ethical challenges and minimize bias that may have arisen, I employed four strategies: confirmability, dependability, credibility, and transferability (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). In addition, I made notes in a reflective journal throughout the data collection and analysis process on the perceptions I may have had (Tufford & Newman, 2012). I used triangulation and member checking to ensure the consistency of the collection of data (Patton, 2015).
Methodology
For this study, my research questions mandated a qualitative research approach (Singleton, Straits, & Straits, 2010). In this study, I collected qualitative data by conducting semistructured interviews with a sample of disaster agency ICT managers using an interview questionnaire (see Appendix B). I strengthened the collection of data by examining relevant documents provided by the disaster agency ICT managers using a document review matrix (see Appendix C). My goal was to explore what ICT managers’ knew about how SMAC technologies might influence disaster response strategies, so I coded data into relevant themes to answer the research questions.
Participant Selection Logic
The setting for the study was personnel from various emergency management agencies at the state level who were responsible for the initial response to a major disaster within the state of Hawaii. I selected the state of Hawaii as the location for this study because the state of Hawaii is at higher risk than are other states for the occurrence of a disaster (National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program, 2015). In addition, the state
of Hawaii is one of the prototype states for FirstNet (Goldstein, 2015). The population for this study were disaster agency ICT managers from state-level first response agencies within the state of Hawaii.
The participants included disaster agency ICT managers who meet the criteria for inclusion in this study. First, at the time of data collection, the ICT manager had to be a member of the staff for a state level agency identified as a first response agency within the state of Hawaii. The ICT management staff must have been directly responsible for the design, acquisition, governance, and operation of the ICT used by the organization's decision makers and first responders during a major disaster. Second, each participant must have been an employee of a state-level first response agency for at least one year and have participated in the annual statewide disaster management exercise (Cabucu, 2015).
Because the most critical element in the successful completion of a study is the selection of participants (Sargeant, 2010), I used purposive sampling to select the appropriate participants to answer the research questions (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009). This sampling also works for studies small in scope or situations that bar random selection (Singleton et al., 2010), which addresses the importance of sample size reflecting an adequate number to answer the research questions (Merriam, 2009). According to Patten (2015), a sample of 14 is a suitable average number of participants needed for a qualitative study; however, in a qualitative study, and depending on the research methodology (Walker, 2012), researchers will continue to sample until the data becomes redundant or when the interviews yield no new information (Morse, 2007; Bryman, 2012). Because this study used a grounded theory design, I conducted
interviews and used a document review matrix to collect data. I continued to sample until I reached saturation (Glaser & Strauss, 1967).
I recruited the participants and sought the necessary permission and consent to conduct interviews. I used professional contacts within my place of work to introduce me to potential participants who meet the selection criteria for this study. Then, I randomly selected nine participants from the pool of 25 ICT managers who met the criteria.
I contacted the participants in this study in person or via email, or telephone. I emailed or mailed an invitation (see Appendix D), a consent form, and a synopsis outlining the purpose and importance of the study to each participant. The participants were given 10 days to respond via phone, email, or mail if they were interested in participating in this study. In addition, I informed the participants, using the
confidentiality agreement (see Appendix E), that their participation in the study and their identities would remain confidential. In addition, I informed the participants, using the confidentiality form, they could withdraw from participating in this study at any stage with no repercussions. I informed the participants that I would securely store all physical and electronic copies of the recordings, notes, transcripts, storage media in two separate but secure locations (Ritchie, Lewis, Nicholls, & Ormston, 2013) for 5 years. After the 5 years, data will be destroyed by a certified document destruction service.
Instrumentation
A researcher uses many types of methods to collect data during a qualitative study to answer the research questions (Stake, 2010). The methods include observation,
interviewing, and surveys (Stake, 2010). For this study, I used an open-ended interview questionnaire (see Appendix B), and a document review matrix (see Appendix C). A
structured interview questionnaire ensured the researcher answers the research questions adequately, and that data collection on the phenomenon of interest, and the knowledge and experiences of the participants.
I created the interview questionnaire and the documents matrix directly from the research questions. I chose to develop the interview questionnaire myself because minimal current research exists on the concepts of interest. I created the interview questionnaire from examples in the literature. I used the Delphi technique to gain consensus from a panel of experts to validate the interview questions and document matrix.
I chose the document review matrix because the literature demonstrated that disaster response organizations’ culture, funding, actions emerge from different forms of documentation. In addition, I used the Delphi technique to gain consensus from a panel of experts to validate the interview questions and document review. Therefore, it is plausible to proclaim that the instruments for this study were both appropriate and sufficient for their purpose. I used an interview questionnaire (see Appendix B) to conduct the semistructured interviews. The interview guide consisted of open-ended questions (Myers, 2013).
According to Patton (2015), qualitative inquiry seeks to avoid receiving calculated or fixed answers during the interview by creating a question that allows the participants to answer in their words. Interview questions with fixed answers limit the potential answers. Using interview questions that force the participant into one direction or another is evident to the interviewer and participant (Patton, 2015).
I augmented the data collection from the interviews with a review of publicly available documents suggested by the participants. I used a spreadsheet (see Appendix C) with headings similar to a literature review matrix to organize the documents collected from the participants. The spreadsheet allowed me to capture and organize the material by major theme for consideration after the interviews (Myers, 2013).
Lodico et al. (2010) defined an interview as a purposeful conversation where the participants express their thoughts in their words. According to Wahyuni (2012),
semistructured interviews are the best way to answer open-ended questions where it is important to understand the point of view of the participants. I conducted interviews with a sample of disaster agency ICT managers from a first response organization within the state of Hawaii. I conducted interviews separately with nine disaster agency ICT
managers until I reached data saturation (Bryman, 2012). The interviews reach saturation when the interviewer receives no new information, no new themes, and the ability to replicate the results (Bryman, 2012).
Hanson, Balmer, and Giardino (2011) reported that four to six well developed; open-ended questions often produce productive interaction and detail. I used 10 open-