While ‘research methodologies’ and ‘research methods’ are often used interchangeably in literatures, for this study research methodology is described as the framework that guides or relates to the entire process of research while research methods are more specific: they are considered as techniques of data collection and analysis (Creswell and Clark, 2007). The two main research approaches broadly relate to the use of quantitative and qualitative techniques. However, while one of the approaches may be appropriate for many studies, the two are often combined in a multi-method approach for others. Quantitative research mostly involves collecting data through various means and converting them into numerical form so that statistical analysis can be made, and conclusions drawn. Although there are exceptions to this, the method usually involves the testing of hypotheses, which are predetermined theories, or questions that are to be addressed, and may include predictions about possible relationships between the variables that are being investigated. This approach is related to deductive logic or “top down,” reasoning i.e. from theory (the general) to data (specific). However, this is not exclusive as some statistical techniques such as descriptive statistics, correlations, and factor analysis can be employed in qualitative studies. Quantitative methods support a more structured data collection and often allow for large amounts of data to be collected and analysed in a logical and replicable way. Hence, it is considered ideal for laboratory situations in which the environment and surrounding conditions can be closely monitored and controlled or bounded. However, the use of the method may be considered as too rigid an approach that ignores or take some aspects of social life within the “real world” for granted, and may not permit the use of
87 alternative explanation beyond the hypothesis. The method assumes that everything in the social world can be described or measured with a numerical system (McQueen and Knussen, 2002).
Qualitative research, which includes various approaches such as "field study" (Schatzman and Strauss, 1973); "case study" (Yin, 1984); and "participant observation" (Jorgensen, 1989), is described as any research where number counting and statistical techniques are not the central issues. The data to be analysed include transcripts of interviews, notes from the researcher’s observations and the systematic analysis of documents (plans, policies, minutes of meetings etc.). Coding of this data may generate a numeric representation but only after the qualitative analysis of the content has been carried out (Wright, 1995). Hence, qualitative data are considered appropriate for inquiries involving social life or phenomena to either derive theories or find out what is happening in a given situation where the researcher seeks to establish the meaning of a phenomenon from the view of participants. Therefore, qualitative data analysis tends to be inductive as the researcher identifies important categories in the data, as well as patterns and relationships through a process of discovery that may lead to theories that may be entirely new or an affirmation, extension or addition to existing ones. Qualitative research involves keen observation, systematic taking of notes, strategic questioning of respondents, and often requires a higher amount of self and time investment by the researchers than is required in a more quantitative experiment or survey. In addition, the approach affords the opportunity to examine the process of "why" and "how", not just "what". Nevertheless the approach is seen as being subjective, and but can suffer from both lack of reliability (ability to replicate) and lack of validity (ensuring that the phenomenon under investigation relates to the research question) (Bryman, 2001; Silverman, 2001). However, these issues can in part be addressed by the use of multiple approaches to collect data in a process known as triangulation. This enhances the credibility and validity of the findings beyond that of a single-approach method, and helps to mitigate some of the pitfalls usually associated with a qualitative approach using limited tools.
Of equal importance to the research methodology adopted for a study is the decision on techniques of data collection to use. Such options include the use of experiments, surveys, questionnaires, interviews, case studies, analysis of documented cases, participant and non- participant observation etc. Data collection techniques are broadly divided into three groups
88 namely: structured, semi-structured and unstructured. The choice of technique(s) to utilize in a study is dependent on the type of data to be obtained, how it will be obtained, from where/who it will be obtained, and the method of analysis to be implemented. These techniques can be used under three broad data collections methods which are briefly explained below.
4.2.1 Structured Data Collection
The structured data collection method is considered a rather a rigid or controlled approach of data collection in which techniques used are fixed, such that they are of the same form and order. Hence, in structured interviews, multiple respondents or cases will be subjected to the same set of questions, asked exactly in the same way and in a specific and predefined order. Hence, questionnaires utilized in this method provide a relatively simple and straight forward approach for collecting large amounts of structured and easily analysable information, while a structured interview limits the responses to specifics and gives room for less elaboration. The closed question format in this method is often used in surveys to gain data representative of large populations. A major advantage of this approach is that by using a standard guide to ask questions, inconsistencies and inappropriate responses are avoided while the researcher anticipates all possible answers with pre-coded responses. In addition, the process of a structured interview can be easily replicated by other researchers in other locations. However, the method is not ideal for deeper enquiries, and its validity can be affected by misunderstanding of questions.
4.2.2 Semi Structured Data Collection
The use of semi-structured data collection method enables a mix of qualitative and quantitative information to be gathered. Semi-structured interviews are often used when a researcher needs to enquire deeply into a topic and to thoroughly understand the answers provided. The method follows a style that is somewhat conversational through a question guide which contains questions and topics that must be covered. Although the questions are standardized and the guides contain major questions that are used in the same way in every interview, the interviewer has some discretion about the order in which they are asked as well as the level of probing for information. Semi-structured interviewing is suitable when the researcher already has some grasp of what is happening within the sample in relation to the research topic. Semi-structured Interviews offer more interactive and less predetermined ways of obtaining information than surveys. They are used extensively in
89 qualitative research for data collection and allow for greater flexibility as they afford respondents to ask questions and obtain immediate clarifications to their enquiries from the researcher. In addition, the presence of the interviewer may encourage improved participation and involvement.
4.2.3 Unstructured Data Collection
The unstructured data collection format covers a broad area of issues but follows the direction of the respondents as the interviewer does not exercise much control over the course of the discussion which can be carried out face to face, by telephone or via the internet through Skype and email. It allows respondents to tell their own stories in their own words, with prompting by the interviewer. Although this method of information gathering may lead to very rich data that can be used in qualitative analysis, it can take a long time to carry out. Hence, it may only be used when researchers can afford to spend a long period of time at the location where research is being carried out.
In addition to interviews, questionnaires and surveys mentioned above, another technique of data collection is “Observation”. Observation may be may be formal or informal. In the former, areas or situations to observe are pre-determined or pre-scheduled and the instruments of observation simply act as a guide. In the latter, areas or situation to observe are decided during the exercise, hence the researcher is said to be the instrument. In addition, the researcher may participate in the exercise (participant observation) or may take no role in the situation other than that of an observer (non-participant observation). Observation as a technique may also become appropriate when the physical state or working condition of a subject is required to be known. Although observation enables the researcher to see exactly how a situation is or how people act and interact in a given situation, such interaction may be influenced by the presence of the researcher. In addition, the type of data capturing adopted e.g. audio tape, video-tape, and field notes may also influence the situation. It is therefore important that this, in common with other techniques, is compliant with ethics standards and procedures.