This section outlines the research methods used to meet each of the objectives identified in Section 3.3.2. Given the wide variety of methods to choose from, the criteria for selecting the appropriate method is discussed. AR is suitable where real events of interest are investigated in real time, and where the study provides the researcher with the ability for action and learning (Coghlan, 2001). The research output provides practical solutions as well as contribute to the body of knowledge in research (Coghlan, 2001). A summary of the selected methods used in this research is then presented.
3.4.1 Available Research Methods
The two overarching approaches to research can be described as quantitative and qualitative (Creswell, 2009). Table 3 presents an overview comparison of qualitative and quantitative approaches (Gray, 2009). A combination of the two approaches is described as mixed methods research. Ivankova and Wingo (2008) identify that the pragmatic approach of action research (which combines empirical data to identify a problem with qualitative procedures for resolving the problem) aligns with the mixed methods philosophy of rejecting the theory of incompatibility between quantitative and qualitative methods.
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Table 3: Comparison of Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methods
Consideration Quantitative Qualitative
Strategy of Inquiry Highly structured Theory testing
Semi-structured, unstructured, Exploratory
Purpose of study Measure of phenomenon based on existing theory
Ascertain/ describe theoretical basis for
phenomenon
Benefit of approach Objective, pre-defined methods, statistically
valid findings
Subjective and difficult to measure phenomenon
are identified and structured
Data analysis Considerations
Descriptive statistics, statistical tests, analytical
approach
Thematic descriptions, narrative approach
Quantitative studies involve the generation of numerical data (Sapsford & Jupp, 2006). The collection and analysis of statistically valid data are used to confirm or redefine a theory (Blaxter, Hughes, & Tight, 2010). It is possible to choose the same research methods for different methodological approaches.
Conversely, the qualitative approach is a way to analyse and understand the world of human experience (Creswell, 2009). Qualitative studies involve the collection of large and diverse data sets using less structured methods, attempting to seek a deeper understanding that may not available through quantification (Sapsford & Jupp, 2006). In qualitative research data is collected in a natural setting and analysed inductively to identify patterns or themes. In the organisational context, access to data or sources of data, particularly in the identification and recruitment of experts, is a challenge. Verification and validation of the data collected through qualitative research methods is crucial to justifying the conclusions drawn by the researcher (Sapsford & Jupp, 2006).
Choosing appropriate methods is based primarily on identifying the type and form of data to be collected and analysed (Fellows & Liu, 2003). The framing of the action
64 research study can be driven by understanding the key issues from organisational participants who will draw attention to their key issues at the time of the study.
A mixed methods approach has been applied in an action research framework. Ivankova and Wingo (2018) presented the advantages of applying mixed methods, aligning qualitative and quantitative techniques with stages of action research. Some key advantages of applying action research relate to the enhanced benefits the research can have in being translated into practice. By maintaining stakeholder involvement throughout the various action research stages, participant stakeholders have a level of ownership to the research, and also help to optimise the developed solution, increasing the effectiveness of the research.
At a high level the steps for action research are shown in Figure 27, and involve cycling through the following four steps to generate solutions to real world problems (Ivankova and Wingo, 2018):
1. Reflection – critical assessment of identified problem 2. Planning
3. Acting 4. Observing
65 Research innovation and knowledge is sometimes identified as difficult to integrate or communicate directly (Ripamonti et al 2015; Kieser and Leiner 2012). Action research can be a bridge to this communication gap, supporting both the practical need of the case study organisation in this research as well as the academic contribution to knowledge. AR also supports the researcher to systematically investigate a complex practical solution which may be qualitative in nature (Ivankova and Wingo, 2008). In planning the selection of research methods for collecting and analysing the right data the researcher first considers the purpose of the study. The need to collect primary or secondary data should then be considered. Primary data includes both quantitative and qualitative data generated through research. Depending on how accessible and resource intensive the collection and analysis of primary data is, there may be a need to collect secondary data. Data sources available from the organisation can be classed as secondary sources of data. These could be existing documents, guidelines or publications.
Table 4 presents the selected research methods employed to collect data and the type of data that is collected. The approach taken in the research has been to align as closely as possible the requirements for cost information and cost estimating of the case study organisation with the research activities. The research is divided into two phases. The purpose of this two-phase approach was to explore participant views and to refine the problem identified in literature with a focus on the application to the case study organisation.
Table 4: Linking the research approach to the key objectives
Epistemological Position Pragmatism Ontological Position Relativist (subjectivist) Research Strategy
Inductive reasoning Deductive Reasoning
Research Approach
Qualitative Qualitative Qualitative Qualitative Quantitative
Research Objective
66 The results of the first phase informed the research methods used to develop and test a solution to the problem in the second phase. The researcher was embedded in the case study organisation design team for much of the research period. The availability of useful data sources was limited for two reasons. Firstly, the early design stage of the design process inherently involves a lack of data. Secondly, the sensitivity around cost data in any organisation restricts access and dissemination through publicly available documentation.
Secondary sources of data were also available in the organisation, primarily through existing documentation in the form of guidelines and procedures associated with cost estimating. These documents were identified as useful to provide validation for several research studies carried out (See Section 3.6). Additional data was sought externally to the case study team from the wider organisation. Again, access was restricted, either through the lack of synergy or direct relevance with the case study or for security and commercial sensitivity reasons.