Research process

A generic scientific research process starts from recognizing relevant research problems, which will be formulated as research questions. In order to answer those questions, a research strategy should be established including the selection of suitable research methods. The methods are used for gathering and analysing data which will lead to drawing conclusions, and finally making contributions to science and practical implications. (Niiniluoto, 1980)

One aim of a PhD project is to show that the researcher is capable of carrying out research studies in a scientific manner. Therefore, it is essential to reveal the applied research methods and research process. The constructive method and process of this PhD thesis is based on the general method adapted from Jørgen- sen (1992) and Olesen (1992) that emphasizes the interplay between theory and practice. The method suits the situation where an industrial problem is analysed and solved by reflecting on scientific theories. The method results both in practical solutions for industry and new scientific knowledge. This approach is further elabo- rated in Figure 8 and Figure 9 below.

Figure 8 illustrates the interplay between theory and practice in this research. On the left hand side the case company provides the practical problem base and context where intervention of VP was made within the case study. The problem and intervention were analysed based on a constructed theory framework, which was expanded during the research. As a result, new scientific and practical knowledge was produced. The application of the general research method will be explained in the next chapter.

Case study Research Context Case company, Business Intervention of VP Construction of Theory Framework New knowledge VE & DS Theories Social Theories Manag. Theories

Figure 8. The relation between empirical study, intervention, existing theories, and construction of new knowledge

Formulation of research questions and research strategy

Based on the research objectives, the formulation and elaboration of the research questions will be explained in this chapter, including reasoning and justifications for why the questions were set, why these questions are important, and why the researcher wants to ask these questions.

The research questions were formulated in order to study the research problem from three different aspects: 1) prescribing a theory foundation for value model- ling, 2) describing empirical value, and 3) describing the empirical impact of VP. From these aspects, the following research questions were formulated:

1. How can the value of virtual environment-based virtual prototyping be framed, conceptualised, evaluated, and justified?

This question recognised the need for a means for value evaluation, and the missing link between virtual prototyping and engineering design. Therefore, it aimed to construct the theory framework for value evaluation and justification. 2. How can the empirical value of virtual prototyping be observed, concre-

tised, and described?

This question aimed to reveal empirical evidence on virtual prototyping value, and to test and iterate the constructed theory framework. Thus, answering this question should also produce practical knowledge of virtual prototyping value. 3. How and by what means does the intervention of virtual prototyping

affect the case company?

This question studied the possible positive and/or negative empirical impacts of virtual prototyping. Thus, answering this question should also produce practical influences of virtual prototyping in industry.

The research strategy was formulated in order to answer the research questions, and to create new scientific knowledge. This task required selection of relevant scientific theories and models. This was done iteratively during the progress of the research, and gained understanding of the problem. The research was scoped (see Chapter 1.2) from several viewpoints in order to acquire enough scientific contribution, but avoiding too wide a research area. Suitable methods were se- lected in order to gather data, analyse data, and draw results and conclusions from the data. Figure 9 below illustrates the logical progress of the research, and the dialogue (Jørgensen, 1992) between theories and empirical research. The strategy for answering the research questions and constructing new knowledge is discussed below. The selection of a theory basis and research methods is ex- plained in detail later.

The research was focused on the context of product design and development in manufacturing industry, and particularly on design for product lifecycle including

manual work i.e. human-machine and socio-technical system aspects. Therefore, theories, concepts and models from Design Science were chosen as scientific foundations. Another key concept of the research is virtual prototyping, aided by virtual environments and virtual reality, which guided the selection of a theoretical basis for that area. The third focal concept is value, which is a very wide and con- text-dependent concept. The research problem in hand focused the study of value concept to business and management related theory. A literature review also aimed to find out what has already been published about possible problems, ad- vantages and the value of VP, and what kind of models and methods there exist for value evaluation.

The practical problem, i.e. justification of value of VP for industry, naturally lead to a research strategy which conducts studies in the field. The scientific approach formulated this practical problem for establishing a conceptual framework for solv- ing this problem. Case study research was selected as a suitable method for the field study, which first required the synthesizing of a theoretical hypothesis that structures case data gathering and analysis. The material was gathered in case studies with the use of several methods including observations, workshops, simu- lation games, interviews and questionnaires. The existing literature points out that, generally speaking, benefits and value propositions are at least partially justified by decreasing problems in processes such as product development. Consequent- ly, as part of the case study-typical problems in product design and development, therefore, opportunities of VP were studied by means of interviews and question- naires as well. This conceptualization aimed to answer the first research question: How can the value of virtual environments-based virtual prototyping be framed, conceptualized, evaluated and justified?

Socio-technical aspects such as manual work were emphasized because of the nature of the case company’s product lifecycle, where manual work is a remarka- ble factor for instance in assembly and maintenance functions. Analysis and cate- gorization of the gathered material lead to a conclusion, that one major root cause of problems is related to poor communication and collaboration within the product development and lifecycle. Therefore, the literature was studied in order to find theories that support modelling value at a level of organizations and processes. A resource-based view of the firm was recognized as a starting point for theory ex- pansion.

In order to reduce existing problems in product development, VP was intro- duced in the case company during two research projects. Both projects aimed to improve product development with an emphasis on manual work during the prod- uct lifecycle. Virtual prototyping was presumed to support reaching the aimed goal. VP was utilized in several true product development projects. The success of VP intervention was studied with the following research question: How can the empiri- cal value of intermediary virtual prototyping be observed, concretized, and de- scribed?

The case study material gathered was analysed by means of conceptual model-

ling5 and categorization reflecting the hypothetical model and categorization of the

benefits, problems and premises of VP that were found. The analysis revealed that the hypothetical model only partially explains the observed advantages of VP. Nevertheless, the conclusion of this part included factors that guided a further literature review and expansion of the theory framework. Based on the analysis and categorization, there were advantages that should be studied further in the dimensions of engineering design (design object and process), social aspects (individuals and organisation), and business and management.

The expanded theory framework was again reflected with the empirical material gathered from the case study and discussed with the literature. This enabled the establishment of solid links between concepts of the different value dimensions, better justifying the advantages and value elements of VP. Furthermore, the case results were discussed in order to answer the third research question: How and by what means does the intervention of VP impact the case company?

This strategy of answering the research questions can be considered to be suf- ficient in order to find solutions to the research problems. Answering the first ques- tion creates knowledge about how value VP can be evaluated based on the theo- retical framework. Furthermore, answering the other two questions creates new knowledge on value manifestations in the case company as well as impacts on the case company. The validity and generalizability of the results will be discussed at the end of this thesis.

5

"Conceptual modelling is the activity of formally describing some aspects of the physical and social world around us for the purposes of understanding and communication.” (My- lopoulos, 2008)

VALUE AND VP CONCEPT ANALYSIS

EMPIRICAL RESEARCH

Problem Base THEORY BASISLiterature

ANALYSIS of the MATERIAL LITERETURE REVIEW DISCUSSION SCIENTIFIC EVALUATION

How can the adoption of intermediary virtual prototyping be

propagated in manufacturing industry by justifying its value and

usefulness in complex business environments? Theory of Technical Systems, Design Science CONSTRUCTION New Knowledge

How can the empirical value of virtual prototyping be observed, concretised, and described?

How and by what means does the intervention of virtual prototyping affect the case company? How can the value of VE- based virtual prototyping be framed, conceptualised, evaluated, and justified?

How should research on virtual prototyping and virtual environments be integrated with

design science research?

CASE STUDY HYPOTHETICAL ”PHENOMENA MODEL” synthesis reference Documentation THEORY FRAMEWORK FOR VP VALUE EVALUATION questionnaires Simulation games Expansion Categorizaton, conceptual modeling KNOWLEDGE ON PRACTICAL VP VALUE Concepts Structure KNOWLEDGE ON IMPACT Conclusion LITERETURE REVIEW Science of virtual reality and virtual environments

Iteration

Resource based theories Knowledge creation Activity theory

FOUR DIMENSIONS

Figure 9. The practical research approach, beginning from the practical and theo- retical problem base. The process is an iterative and expansive dialogue between the empirical case study, and literature. The first iteration was based on the “Phe- nomena model” reflecting the case data, which led to the four dimensions of value. This guided to further consultation of literature, and new iterations. Finally, the research questions were answered by producing the theoretical framework, knowledge on VP value, and knowledge on practical impacts to the case compa- ny.

Scientific theories and models

This chapter briefly introduces the theories and models that are the basis for the work, and what the relation is to the research problem. Engineering design theory is the starting frame, but it is not sufficient for modelling the value of virtual proto- typing. Based on the experience of the author, and based on the empirical case findings, value of virtual prototyping cannot be modelled solely with a mechanistic engineering approach. The business and organisational value dimensions also require soft approach.

This research investigates the value of VP from several viewpoints: virtual envi- ronments-based virtual prototyping technology, product design and development, organizational and management, while the main contribution is on design science. The selected theories cover a wide and multi-disciplinary approach. The selection of the theoretical basis followed the research process introduced in the previous chapter and in Figure 9. Engineering design theory was a natural basis, because VP was studied in the context of product design and development. The essential theoretical basis of this research includes engineering design theories described by Vladimir Hubka and W. Ernst Eder in their books Design Science (Hubka & Eder, 1996) and Theory of Technical Systems (Hubka & Eder, 1988). The inten- tion of these theories is to describe knowledge of what the object of designing is on at an abstract level, how the object (i.e. product, machine, etc.) can be spelled or modelled, and what design is as a research subject or development target. Hubka defined the Theory of Technical Systems as a sub-theory derived from general system theories. Other key theories consulted that are related to Design Science and Theory of Technical Systems are Domain Theory of Andreasen (1980), and Theory of Dispositions of Olesen (1992).

Virtual environments and virtual reality were the particular technologies used in virtual prototyping. Therefore, theory of virtual environments was a self-evident choice. The theory selected was adopted from the book “Science of Virtual Reality and Virtual Environments” by Kalawsky (1993). Value and management theories were consulted as part of this research as a basis for constructing valuing models for VP. The theories aimed firstly to define the meaning and concept of value, and its several aspects including objective and subjective, exact and abstract, quantita-

tive and qualitative value. When the concept of “value6” was clarified, value con-

figuration (Stabell & Fjeldstad, 1998) and value network analysis (Allee, 2008) turned out to be appropriate theories, because in the end value is created and captured in the business of companies. Those theories also refer to the resource- based view (Wernerfelt, 1984) and knowledge-based view (Sveiby, 2001), (Nona-

6

Oxford Dictionaries defines the concept of value as: A. the worth, desirability, or utility of a thing, or the qualities on which these depend; B. worth as estimated, valuation; C. the equivalent of a thing; what represents or is represented by or may be substituted for a thing; D. something well worth the money spent; E. the ability of a thing to serve a pur- pose or cause an effect.

ka, 1994) to the firm, which explain the empirical findings of the research study well, and construct them as knowledge about value from organizational and man- agement point of view. Theory of Expansive Learning (Engeström, 2001) built on the Activity Theory (Vygotsky, 1978) and theory of human factors and ergonomics, see e.g. Eason (2013) contribute to the research by providing a social and socio- technical scientific aspect that supports the other theories.

Perspectives of the author’s worldview

The researcher’s background is strongest in the fields of engineering design, product development, virtual prototyping and virtual environments with an empha- sis more on design than on engineering disciplines. The work of the researcher has been mostly related to research projects which include a strong emphasis on human factors. He has been involved in numerous research projects aimed to developing, for instance, manual assembly and maintenance work. The research projects enabled observations and experience of the virtual prototyping-aided development of human-machine systems.

The researcher has a relatively long history (over fifteen years) with virtual pro- totyping, first on technical system modelling and later more on process and meth- odology development. Today, the researcher’s emphasis is mostly on the real utilization of this methodology in industry, questioning why it is not more widely adopted. The benefits and value of VP has been a research problem for a very long time, and a comprehensive method of value estimation is lacking. According to the author’s long experience of VP, the interest and challenges have been shift- ing from technical issues towards industrial processes and value thinking, because VP technology has become mature enough.

Selection of research methods

Here the researcher will describe the justifications for selecting certain research methods in order to answer the research questions. The set of methods will be elaborated as the research progresses.

Selected research methods for the constructive approach. The formulated set of research questions and selected constructive approach determined the bounda- ry of relevant research methods for gathering and analysing data and concluding results. Constructive research typically includes empirical investigations where quantitative (e.g. controlled experiments or surveys) or qualitative (e.g. case stud- ies) methods are used (Crnkovic, 2010). Thus, a major question was the choice between quantitative and qualitative methods. The nature of design research is such that mostly qualitative methods are suitable. That was the case in this re- search as well, where a case study in an industrial context was selected as an appropriate method. The case studies had an action research and formative ap- proach (Blessing & Chakrabarti, 2009) in the sense that the researcher was not just an observer, but participated in the development of VP himself.

Case study research. Design is carried out in a social and managerial context and therefore design research should draw on social science (Hubka & Eder, 1988). The case study is but one of several ways of doing social science research (knowledge of individual, group, organizational, social, political and related phe- nomena), while others include experiments, surveys, histories, and economic and epidemiologic research (Yin, 2009). According to Yin, each of these methods has particular advantages and disadvantages depending upon three conditions: the type of research question, the control an investigator has over actual behavioural events, and the focus on contemporary as opposed to historical phenomena. In general case studies the preferred method is when: a) “How” or “why” questions are being posed, b) The investigator has little control over events, and c) The focus is on a contemporary phenomenon within a real life context.

Typically, case studies include direct observations of the events, and interviews of the persons involved in the events (Yin, 2009). Yin has defined case study research as follows:

An empirical inquiry that: a) investigates a contemporary phenomenon in depth and within its real-life context, especially when b) the boundaries be- tween phenomenon and its context are not clearly evident

The case study inquiry a) copes with the technically distinctive situation in which there will be many more variables of interest than data points, b) re- lies on multiple sources of evidence with a triangulating fashion, and c) benefits from the prior development of theoretical propositions to guide da- ta collection and analysis

The most important application is to explain the presumed causal links in real-life interventions that are too complex for the survey or experimental strategies. A second application is to describe an intervention and the real-life context in which it occurred. Thirdly, case studies can illustrate certain topics within an evaluation, again in a descriptive mode. Fourthly, the case study strategy may be used to enlighten those situations (Yin, 2009).