Risk Information Seeking and Processing Model

In an effort to better understand how individuals seek out and process risk information, Griffin, Dunwood & Neuwirth (1999) proposed the Risk Information Seeking and

Processing model (RISP), which combines elements of the Heuristic Systematic Model of Information Processing (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993) and the Theory of Planned

Behaviour (Ajzen, 1991; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). The RISP model aims to improve the ability to develop effective risk communication initiatives by identifying factors that relate to an individuals' risk information seeking and processing behaviour (Griffin, Dunwood &

Neuwirth, 1999; Griffin et al. 2004). Griffin et al. (2008) offered the following insight as to how the RISP model may be useful in campaign design:

Risk information campaigns might prepare target markets for risk information by first publicizing how risk knowledge and its acquisition are the norms among target populations. It also appears that, to actively engage risk information, people need to feel they have the capacity to acquire and understand whatever information is necessary to deal cognitively with a risk, manage an emotional response to it, or meet normative expectations about what they should know about the risk (pg. 308).

3.1.1. Heuristic Systematic Model of Information Processing (HSM)

According to the HSM, the perceived gap in knowledge between what someone knows and what they think they need to know about a risk will influence how much effort they spend seeking and processing information on the given risk (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993).

The HSM distinguishes between systematic and heuristic information processing. By default, individuals process information heuristically as this approach requires less effort

they will expend more effort to seek and process relevant the information systematically, in more depth. It is also possible that individuals will employ a combination of these two approaches (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993, Trumbo, 2002).

3.1.2. Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB)

The TPB is a psychological theory that connects beliefs and intentions to actual

behaviour. TPB states that one's beliefs about the consequences of a behaviour shapes their attitudes toward that behaviour (expected utility of an outcome). Similarly, one’s normative beliefs influences their subjective norms (felt social pressure to do something) and control beliefs influence their perceived ability to perform or control a behaviour Together, these three concepts affect an individual’s behavioural intention to do something, where a behavioural intention ultimately manifests itself in an observable behaviour (Ajzen, 1991).

3.1.3. RISP Model

The RISP model combines the approaches of the HSM and TPB models to explore the antecedents of risk information seeking intent, as well as the approach to risk

information processing (heuristic versus systematic). Like HSM, the RISP model links information seeking and processing to information insufficiency. Information insufficiency is the gap between current information and the perceived level of information needed to effectively manage a risk. Along with information insufficiency, perceived information gathering capacity and relevant channel beliefs are also factors that influence how information is processed. The former consists of an individual’s cognitive ability to seek out, process and understand the information needed to meet their informational needs, while the latter is formed by their trust in the available information sources they could use to improve their current knowledge (Griffin, Dunwood & Neuwirth, 1999; Griffin et al., 2004; Griffin et al., 2008).

The RISP model integrates the antecedents to information insufficiency and the subsequent behavioural intentions in more detail than the traditional TPB, which only looks at three dimensions. RISP type models usually also include the following variables to provide a more comprehensive perspective:

• Individual characteristics - composed of the respondent’s socio-demographics, beliefs, and past experiences regarding a particular risk.

• Perceived hazard characteristics - personal control over a particular risk, trust in the institution responsible for managing the risk, as well as the perceived probability and perceived severity of a particular risk.

• Affective response - an assessment of the individual’s emotional response to the risk such as worry, fear, or anger.

• Informational subjective norms - the influence friends and family have on individuals' obligations to perform a preventative behaviour.

• Information insufficiency - the information gap between current knowledge and knowledge needed to mitigate a potential hazard or risk.

More specifically, the RISP model proposes that an individual’s general characteristics affect their perceived hazard characteristics (Figure 3.1). In turn, perceived hazard characteristics influence their affective response (e.g., higher perceived probability or severity of a risk would lead to higher levels of worry or fear about the risk). In parallel, an individual’s general characteristics also influence their informational subjective norms, as well as their levels of current information regarding the risk. Ultimately, affective response, informational subjective norms, and current knowledge influence their information sufficiency threshold, which is the behavioural antecedent associated with the initiation of information seeking and processing (Griffin et al., 2004). The RISP model’s components are well established as plausible antecedents to risk information seeking and processing behaviour (Griffin et al., 2004; Huurne, Griffin & Gutteling, 2009;

Yang et al. 2010; Kahlor, 2010), and offer an intuitive account of information seeking.

Figure 3.1. RISP model (Griffin, Dunwood & Neuwirth, 1999)

The RISP model was first operationalized by Griffin et al. (2004) to investigate

information seeking and processing regarding water contamination and fish toxicity in the Great Lakes: “The primary focus was on the relation of worry and informational subjective norms to information sufficiency and the relation of key antecedent variables to worry and informational subjective norms.” (pg. 28). Griffen et al. (2004) was primarily concerned with examining the factors that initiated information seeking and processing, rather than the mode of information processing used. Later applications of the RISP model include a study on flood risks (Griffin et al., 2008), a study on the public’s

perception of industrial hazards (Huurne, Griffin & Gutteling, 2009), a study on zoonotic

disease (Clark, 2009), and a study concerning clinical trial enrolment (Yang et al., 2010).

The RISP model has also been adjusted to include additional variables specific to the researchers’ needs. Kahlor included behavioural intent in a study on global warming (Kahlor, 2007) and seeking intent in a study on health related risk information seeking (Kahlor, 2010).

The majority of the aforementioned RISP and RISP-related studies found that greater information insufficiency led to information being pursued and processed at a higher level. They also found that affective response and informational subjective norms positively relate to information insufficiency. Kahlor (2007) suggests informational subjective norms might hold a direct relationship with information seeking. Griffin et al.

(2008) found informational subjective norms, as well as affective response to have direct relationships with information seeking, both studies advocate including these as

alternate or additional variables to information insufficiency in future application of RISP type models.