Guidebook page 28 III. SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
A. Basic Outline of Chapters and Sections
The following are suggested chapters and sections that may be used for theses and dissertations.
Lists of Tables, Matrices, Figures (if any) I. Introduction
II. Review of Related Literature III. Study Framework
IV. Methodology/Research Design V. Results and Discussion
VI. Summary and Conclusion
VII. Implications and Recommendations Bibliography
Appendices
B. Basic Writing Guidelines
I. INTRODUCTION. This chapter provides an overview of the entire work.
A. Background of the Study. This section must contain the following:
1. An introduction of the communication or media concern that the work seeks to discuss using historical and baseline data (e.g., timelines, statistical trends, population data, media facts and figures), and qualitative insights (e.g., quotations, anecdotes, reviews);
2. An introduction and explanation of the chosen cases (e.g., a media
organization, the population of young adults, a specific geographical area) that are going to be used to study the communication or media concern.
[For example, the introduction first introduces corruption in media outlets by explaining envelopmental and checkbook journalism. It then explains why beat reporters are the best people to study for this type of corruption in media.]
B. Statement of the Problem and Objectives. This section must not only be a listing of the problem and objectives. Instead, it must link the problem to the arguments presented in the background of the study (ideally, in a 100-word paragraph). The research problem itself must be a clearly articulated research question or a series of questions.
C. Significance of the Study. This must state why the study is being done. It must draw arguments from the background of the study, the related literature, the study
Guidebook page 29 framework to explain 1) how the study can illuminate a specific communication or media concern and 2) why the chosen cases can best address this concern. It must provide a preview of the implications and recommendations.
II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE. This chapter must provide a substantive review of the findings, methods, and theories from previous studies as published in academic and scholarly-reviewed documents such as journals, research anthologies, theses, and dissertations. Some helpful tips in writing the review:
- Begin the literature with a description of the concepts that are being explored in the chapter. Do not say, “This chapter reviews related literature.”
- The literature that is being reviewed must be organized according to substantive concepts/themes that adhere to the objectives of the study. Thus, refrain from organizing the literature into “local studies” and “foreign studies” unless the research objective of the study is to compare territorial perspectives. Also, never organize the related literature review according to document type (e.g., journals, books, theses, dissertations).
- The literature must not be an enumeration of previous studies. In other words, it must not appear as an extended annotated bibliography. (An example would be to have a series of paragraphs that begin with “A thesis by…,” “Another thesis by…,” and “Yet another thesis by…”.)
- The literature links your study to previous research. Thus, a review must cogently compare and contrast what has been argued in literature on the communication or media concern that is at the heart of the current work; afterwards, explain how these arguments relate to your own research. Group together similar findings, then contrast these with dissenting results. Provide a critique of the literature being reviewed.
- Textbook definitions and the etymologies of concepts must appear in the introduction, not in this chapter.
- In citing related literature, use the past tense (e.g., Cicero (1945) said/argued/
wrote; According to Cicero (1945), pleasure was…). However, in relating related literature to your own research, use the present tense. Please use the appropriate APA or MLA in-text citation format.
- Conclude this chapter with a synthesis of research gaps—what is known and what is unknown, what has been done and what has not been done, what theoretical approaches have been used and which have not been used as regards your research question. This facilitates the connection of your study to previous knowledge and helps you articulate the significance of your research.
III. STUDY FRAMEWORK. This chapter presents the theoretical—sociological, critical, humanistic—foundations of your research. Further, it explains how previous
scholarly arguments inform your research. Finally, it serves as a blueprint as to how the variables/concepts in your study relate to one another.
There are generally two ways of presenting the study framework. One approach that is perhaps useful for qualitative research is a conceptual framework that combines the theoretical concepts and conceptual constructs that are used in the research. Another
Guidebook page 30 approach that is perhaps useful for quantitative research is the three-level
operationalization process, which is discussed below.
The use of models is encouraged since this helps visualize the relationships among variables and measure or concepts and indicators.
A. Theoretical Level. This section explains why a chosen theory best informs the research. It discusses the theory’s author/s and historical roots as well as the original context for which it was developed. It explains each concept in the theory and the inter-relations among these concepts. Moreover, the section includes a literature-based critique of the theory. Thus, the discussion of the theoretical level must not solely depend on a textbook compendium of theories (such as
Littlejohn’s), but on a thorough research of the theory’s evolution itself and a comprehensive analysis of its concepts and arguments using various scholarly sources.
Should the research involve several theories, each individual theory must be discussed as described in the preceding paragraph. Then, a discussion of how the theories integrate—which concepts are either included or excluded, for instance—
must be included.
Remember that theoretical framework must be parsimonious. Thus, avoid unnecessarily complicated models and arguments that cover a bigger ground than what the research does.
B. Conceptual Level. This applies the theory or the integrative theory into the thesis/dissertation. It explains the soundness of how a concept as originally defined by its author translates into the current effort.
C. Operational Level. This section explains the specific measures for the measures or indicators that are being used in the study to explore particular variables and concepts. This section must match the components of the research instrument.
D. Operational Definition of Terms. This section includes terms that are used differently from their dictionary definitions.
E. Statement of Hypotheses. Quantitative studies that involve statistical analysis must include this section. Each hypothesis (labeled as H1, H2a, H2b…) must be
introduced by an explanatory paragraph.
IV. METHODOLOGY. This chapter describes and explains the logic behind the
gathering and analysis of research data. In the proposal stage, this chapter is written in the future tense. Thus, during thesis writing stage, make sure that this chapter’s text is changed into past tense.
A. Research Design and Methods. This section explains the choices in the conduct of the research. Did the study use a qualitative, a quantitative, or a triangulate
approach? Did it use a one-shot, cross-sectional, or longitudinal approach? Which specific methods were used? Why?
B. Concepts and Indicators/Variables and Measures. This links the framework and the methodology. Thus, this section discusses how specific variables or concepts were operationalized into particular measures or indicators.
Guidebook page 31 C. Research Instruments. This section describes the questionnaires that were used to
gather data. Rather than simply regurgitating the elements of the instruments, this section must explain the logic behind the design of these questionnaires.
D. Units of Analysis and Sampling. This section explains how specific units (e.g., households or groups, newspapers or news articles) were chosen for the study.
Also, it explains how these units were selected using probability or non-probability sampling.
E. Data Gathering/Generation and Construction. This section describes in detail the protocols that were followed during data gathering, especially in the
implementation of the sampling scheme, and the rationale behind these protocols.
It can also include a timetable or a budget report. This section also explains any changes between the proposed and the implemented data gathering procedure.
F. Data Analysis. This section explains how and why the data were organized, analyzed, and interpreted accordingly.
G. Scope and Limitations. This section must explain the parameters of the study. An important caveat is that a concern that is not within the scope of the study must not be considered as a limitation. For instance, do not say that a qualitative study is limited by its inability to provide representativeness and generalizability because, in the first place, a qualitative study is not designed to do so.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION*. This chapter presents the findings of the study. To ensure that the research does address what it originally sought to do, this chapter must be organized according to the specific objectives.
In the case of studies that use triangulation, this chapter must not be organized according to methods to promote consistency across theses and dissertations and ease of access to their findings. Thus, a section in the Results and Discussion chapter must draw from both quantitative and qualitative data to address the objectives. Findings can only be organized by method if the study is primarily methodological in nature.
Thus, an answer to a specific objective must draw from both quantitative and qualitative data.
This transmutation table below must be used for quantitative data. Never use percentages for sample sizes where the units of analysis number less than 100.
Instead, use proportions or ratios.
Percentage Proportion/Fractions Ratios
20 1/5 1 out of 5 2 out of 10
Guidebook page 32
Some helpful items to remember in writing the results and discussion:
- Discussion must precede any visual aid such as tables, charts, pictures or matrices.
- All direct quotes must be italicized and attributed to specific informants (use pseudonyms if needed). Quotes that are longer than three manuscript lines must be indented by 0.5”. Non-English quotes from interviewees and FGD participants must be followed by an English translation in brackets.
- When discussing data, use the past tense because there were gathered weeks before the write-up is composed. However, use the present tense when making inferences across findings.
- The findings of the study must be linked to the earlier chapters. To compose a sound and solid thesis or dissertation, compare and contrast the findings with what has been earlier found in literature or argued in theory. Thus, cite previous studies and theories in making your arguments.
IV. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. This chapter must include the following:
A. Summary. This answers the general objective by discussing the findings across specific objectives. In doing this, cite previous studies and theories to support various arguments.
B. Conclusion. This succinctly answers the research question.
V. IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS. Any research must ultimately answer the question “So what?” This chapter directly answers this question on at least three levels (see below). There are other possible implications and
recommendations.
A. Theoretical Issues. This section explains 1) the theoretical value of the findings and 2) the soundness of the original study framework. It must chart future research directions on the same topic but use a different theoretical perspective. It may also offer a new theory—this is particularly important for a dissertation.
B. Methodological Issues. This section explains the soundness of the methodology as it was implemented. It discusses the implications of the methods, the units of analysis, sampling scheme, research instruments, and data gathering procedures on the resultant findings. It must chart future directions on the same topic but use a different methodology.
C. Practical Issues. This section describes the practical implications and applications of the findings. Examples include recommendations on improving media literacy and communication practice.
Guidebook page 33 C. Basic Citation Using APA Style
Neyhart, D. & Karper, E (2007). The Owl at Purdue University. Retrieved October 17, 2007, from The Owl at Purdue University Web site:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/printable/560/.
This resource was written by David Neyhart and Erin Karper. Additional material by Kristen Seas. Last full revision by Jodi Wagner and Kristen Seas. Last edited by Dana Lynn Driscoll on June 6th 2007 at 2:25PM
Summary: APA (American Psychological Association) is most commonly used to cite sources within the social sciences. This resource, revised according to the 5th edition of the APA manual, offers examples for the general format of APA research papers, in-text citations, endnotes/footnotes, and the reference page.