SAMPLING STRATEGY FOR THE INTERVIEWS

Figure 5.1 Different types of sampling methods Sampling

Non-probability Probability

Multi stage

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The sampling techniques considered can be divided into two types of categories and is depicted in figure 5.1 above.

The probability sampling technique for selecting samples assumes that the sample is statistically chosen. Non - probability sampling provides a range of alternative techniques to select a sample based on subjective judgement. Quota sampling is a type of stratified sample where the selection that is within strata is non-random; and based on the premise that the sample will represent the population with the variability in the sample for various quota variables being the same as that in the population. (Barnett 1991). Purposive sampling enables the researcher to use their judgment to select cases that will best answer the research question. It is a method used by researchers adopting a grounded theory route. Self- selection sampling occurs when individuals can identify their desire to take part in the research. The researcher therefore needs to publicise their need for respondents either by advertising through appropriate media or other platforms. For this research, aside from the media houses, places like the law school or universities would have been an appropriate platform. This was considered but would have been more time consuming and meant more resources would have been needed. Using a Convenience sampling method would have meant selecting the sample haphazardly (randomly) based on ease of obtaining or locating them. This would continue until a sample size is reached. This technique is often used for pilot studies before a more structured sample is gathered. Although this is a widely-used technique that is open to bias as the cases cannot be

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representative, consequently any generalisations made from them are likely to be flawed. My contacts however, at the start of the research process were not sufficient to carry out a random sampling technique.

A snow ball sampling strategy

This was the only practicable mode of tracing enough respondents in both Ghana and Nigeria, where the research was heavily reliant on limited contacts, was by using a snowball sampling technique. It relied on the contacts between individuals to trace additional respondents. This worked out very well in both Ghana and Nigeria as establishing all the initial contacts on my own would have been difficult.

The respondent samples for this research were chosen so that the research can capitalize on their existing roles. These individuals were already part of the setting and knew it intimately. However, this sometimes meant that they were over familiar and missed important issues or consideration; and took certain issues for granted; Issues that may be vital to the analysis process. Nonetheless, interviewing various individuals helped to capture a fuller picture of the context and setting.

So, issues missed out by individuals, groups of professionals were picked up by another. Respondents were asked to provide certain information about their professional experience and qualifications to gain a fuller understanding of their involvement in the frauds cases; and to give weight to their analysis.

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Lee (1993), stress that the snowballing technique is open to bias as respondents are likely to introduce people with similar views which may lead to a homogeneous sample; while Beardsworth and Keil (1992) also argue that such technique cannot possibly claim to produce a statistically representative sample since they rely on other individuals.

However, the triangulation method adopted by this research helped to produce a balanced picture.

Idolor (2010) used a non-probability sampling technique in Benin City Nigeria. One of the reasons the sample city was chosen was for its heterogeneous metropolitan characteristics with highly educated individuals; and cited it as a potential haven for fraudsters with an interest in defrauding banks. 140 questionnaires were distributed to a specific audience; staff of several banks located in one large city in Nigeria (Benin City, Edo State). 109 completed questionnaires were retrieved, of which 100 were satisfactorily filled and usable. Their aim however, their aim was to generate an explanation of the types of fraud affecting the banks in Nigeria and the factors driving this motivation.

Sample area and site

Taking into consideration suggestions from Jupp et.al (2000), and Punch (1998), the sample plan for this study was chosen to achieve the research purpose and answer the research questions. In identifying the samples, the research aimed to address issues around representation, generalizability, reliability and validity.

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The interview sample in Nigeria was chosen from Lagos and Abuja; in Ghana Accra. Selection of these sites was based on their typicality.

Consequently, this allowed for possible comparison between urban settings in both countries. These are the main areas where higher net value fraud cases were reported on a frequent basis. Gomm, Hammersley and Foster (2002) stress that performing multi-site studies increases the generalizability of qualitative research. Holtfreter (2005) argues that studies of White collar offenders limited to one unit of analysis (i.e. individual) and restricted to convicted samples might perpetuate potential biases.

This study is focused on proportion of value of theft and how low and high-profile cases are handled, but it captures cases from across the country.

The Target Population

The sample population selected for interviews and questionnaire distribution were carefully selected to ensure that their contribution helped to answer the research questions. They were selected because of their knowledge and experience of the country as well as their expertise in this research topic. Each chosen group had the potential to provide important insight about the types of offenders, offenses and organization involved in the occupational fraud cases in both countries.

Their contribution consisted of perceptions and facts.

This survey was opened to

• Solicitors

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• Barristers

• Investigators

• Academics

• Media

• The main crime agencies in Ghana and Nigeria – EFCC, ICPC, EOCO and CHRAJ

• Gatekeepers – inspectors, organisations – Head of fraud/ risk management

Defence Barristers/Lawyers

The recount of activities and opinions from private defence barristers were also crucial to this study because over the years they have had direct involvement with occupational fraud cases and had various interactions with the systems in place. It was useful to hear challenges from both sides’ account of some case.

Investigators and Prosecutors

The investigators and prosecutors worked at the main crime agencies in Ghana and Nigeria are EFCC, ICPC, EOCO and CHRAJ; where permission was sort to carry out the research. Again, this sample was chosen so that the research could capitalize on their existing roles and activities. The individuals from these organisations that took part in this study, were already part of the setting and know it intimately. It was clear from their vague responses to questions in the questionnaires that they took certain issues for granted; Issues that may have been vital to the

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analysis process. Therefore, the opportunity to interview other individuals (the barristers who defended perpetrators) captured a fuller picture of the context and setting. So, issues missed out by individual in the Agencies, were picked up elsewhere by other participant groups.

Crime journalists

These included journalists from the print and electronic media. Print media includes newspapers. Electronic media included television and radio. The Journalists were familiar with the challenges these sorts of cases bring having reported on several occupational fraud cases over the past years. It was useful to get their accounts first hand.

Academics

Another useful research exercise were the interactions had with Academics that had studied this topic area over the years. They were familiar with certain prominent cases, societal challenges, improvements needed in the system and any gaps in studies. In Ghana, I came across Barristers that were also lecturers in the universities; so, they shared both their academic and commercial exposure to the subject.

The next section highlights the various research techniques that were explored, in order to capture all interactions with my chosen

respondents.

Methodology Michelle Odudu

Figure 5.2. Illustration of the different types of interview styles

Interviews may be highly formalised and structured using standardised questions for each research participants (respondent) or they may be informal and unstructured conversations. (Saunders et.al, 2009) The level of formality and structure depicts the category of interview.

Saunders et.al (2009) highlight three categories namely structured, semi-structured and unstructured or in-depth interviews. Healey 1991;

Healey and Rawlinson, 1993, 1994) differentiate between standardised and non-standardised interviews. Robson (1993) suggests a different category type, respondent (participant) and informant interview.

Interviews