Q in their village rituals.
29 seen in use The stripes disappear; they are one with the expression.
Kawachi sometimes uses a combination of patting on the gofun and painting it on leaving lines of the brush, thus achieving a combination of both the roughness of skin and lines from wrinkles. .The pattern of brush strokes also varies. It is not always horizontal, but may be, as
in the case of his Waka-onna in the Kanze collection, diagonal on the
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forehead, with strokes from both sides upwards towards the part in the middle, as if drawing the slopes of M t . Fuji on the forehead. Below the eyes the strokes are vertical, rounding off the chin, likewise following a vertical pattern down the nose tapering off in a circular movement under the nose.
Thus the painting techniques can become very complex, and Kawachi explored them to the utmost. With less and less possibility of creating new mask types, this was certainly one way of asserting individuality. The perfection of the Noh mask hinges on harmony between carving and painting; there is a constant tension, almost competition between the blade and the brush. Both are crucial; expert painting cannot compensate
for poor carving. Although Zekan and Kawachi certainly mastered both,their masks would suggest a leaning in separate directions; Zekan towards the blade and Kawachi, the brush. Zekan’s masks show a painting technique that is on the whole simple, uncluttered and without tricks. He does not mix colours very much, and sometimes uses Indian ink without even softening the blackness by adding gofun before painting; this must have given his masks a rather harsh effect when they were new. The backs often show the fuki-urushi technique over Indian ink, that is, wiping off superfluous lacquer with a cloth before it dries.
In addition to the yake-in and the curved intricate symbols that became common for mask makers at the time, both Zekan and Kawachi left
further imprints on the back through personal markings: Kawachi often carved a half crysanthemum in the upper right hand corner of the forehead; Zekan sometimes left distinct diagonal blade marks at the base of the nose. Not all masks attributed to them have their names on the back as it was sometimes the practice when masks were made on order to write the mask maker’s name rather under the painted-on hair on the front of the mask.
lOO
Zekan and Kawachi have been highlighted among the makers of this
period not only because they have been accorded a special place in the
history of mask making in Japan as representative of the peak of mask
making, but primarily because their masks are numerous and of high
quality. A further reason for focusing on them - as opposed to other
excellent mask makers of the early Edo period such as Omi, Yamato,
Döhaku, Dosui - is that they have highly individual styles that can
easily be contrasted to show different approaches to mask making.
Finally, they perfected their own respective techniques to a point
which has since proved quite difficult to equal. As stated before,
they mark an important transition from the energy and directness of
Zekan’s style to the soft, mellow and subtle expressions of greater
serenity seen in Kawachi's masks. This is achieved through greater
attention to detail and refinement of technique which is to characterize
masks from that time on.
Ultimately, refinement of technique and acceptance of orthodoxy
were to bring about a marked decline in Noh mask making. Later Edo
period masks are largely static copies and few show any of the
dramatic power and vitality that still characterize the masks of
Kawachi and Zekan. Yet even in the middle of the Edo period and later
the urge to create something new was not entirely stifled, or perhaps
it was the actors or patrons who wanted a wider choice of mask types. New
types for, for instance ,Ono-no Komachi’s suitor Shii-no Shoshö, Shoshö
30 and Fukakusa-otoko, of greater refinement than Yase-otoko, were made.
Frequently they were new types in name only as expression varied little
from already established types of for instance the young w o m e n ’s masks.
In his significant study of 1925, Japanische Masken No und Kyögen,
Perzynski mentions Shigeyoshi in Kanazawa, mask maker for the Maeda
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Daimyö in the first half of the nineteenth century, who tried some new types. One of these, called a Fushimi-jS, was among forty-two masks
31
by Shigeyoshi in the collection of the Berlin Museum. The same mask maker also made a Beshimi-kurohige and a Dorohige-beshimi, which
suggests he was trying to create new variants by combining the traits of two or more already existing types. This may have made them more acceptable to Noh actors or patrons than entirely new creations.
Another later attempt at creating a new mask is worth noting: a Taik5 made for the shite in a play by Hideyoshi, Shibata (a taikö-nö). It was made by Kongo Kinnosuke especially for the role played by him
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at Hideyoshi's grave in 1898. Such bursts of creativity were rather the exception, however, from the eighteenth century on.
One can hardly blame the decline in mask making entirely on the mask maker's going commercial. It accompanies the ossification of Noh as a whole. Even in Hideyoshi's time there were hardly any benefit performances for the general public, 'a sure sign that it was fast
33
becoming an upper-class entertainment'. When culture goes official it often stops developing; even today when a folk performance becomes designated an 'intangible cultural asset' the emphasis immediately is on preservation.
31 F. Perzynski, Japanische Masken No und Ky5gen, vol.2, p.37- The mask differs from other Jo types; it appears rather long-faced, has- long narrow eye slits and a barely open mouth with slightly protruding lower lip. An inscription on the mask pouch says it was donated to the Fushimi Inari Shrine in 1858 (see vol.2, p.107). Thus is may have been made solely for this purpose and not to be used in formal Noh.
32 Ibid., p.183. As photographed, the mask appears a mature man with some wrinkles on his forehead (in a pattern reminiscent of the Okina - an attempted deification?), deep-set eyes in light folds, fairly wide nose and slightly open mouth with teeth in upper part only. Colouring is light with painted-on brows and whiskers. 33 D. Keene, No, p.U6.
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If actors could be punished for minor mistakes, even be condemned to commit ritual suicide or be sent into exile, mask makers were hardly free from the same pressures of orthodoxy.
Deme Gensuke Mitsumori, tenth generation of the Echizen Deme family of mask makers, died in Tokyo in 1887, bringing to the end
3I+
hereditary system of mask makers from the Edo period. Although Noh by then was beginning to get back on its feet after the upheavals with the end of the Tokugawa shogunate and the Meiji restoration, measures of support were mainly directed towards actors. They-could survive with the stage properties - and the masks - already in their possession, and mask makers were temporarily superfluous.
Not until the end of the Meiji period were there to be any serious attempts to revive the Noh mask making tradition.
Nakamura Yasuo, ’Meiji-no nö-men seisaku’, Geinoshi kankyü, no.2^, P-13.
Ill
CHAPTER 5
THE CONTEMPORARY MASK MAKER AND NEW CONCEPTS FOR THE NOH MASK
Noh derives its theatricality from a ’total theatre’ concept of
mime, dance, music and words, rather than from dramatic conflicts
arising from a literary text. In to d a y ’s avant-garde Japanese theatre
the emphasis on the visual is again dominant and the power of
confrontation in the mask valued. ’Thanks to the mask, the dramatic
actor can work more in the way of the poet, the sculptor, the painter,
the designer.’^"
Yet, despite the consistent breaking down of barriers between art
forms in Japan, as elsewhere, the Noh mask maker continues to exist
very much in isolation - neither accorded much recognition by the Noh
theatre establishment that sets the framework for his art, nor
considered truly creative by many within the visual arts or the theatre
outside of Noh.
'What is the Noh mask m a k e r ’s position today?’ 'What are his
motivations, objectives and aspirations?’ These are the first
questions to be raised in this chapter. Following naturally from this
would be, 'What is the Noh mask today and where is it heading?' and
’Can the Noh mask function outside of the context of traditional No h ? ’
The latter is a particularly relevant question with the increasing
experimentation in contemporary Japanese theatre which draws more and
more on classical forms of theatre, acting styles, symbols and visual
effects to achieve its theatricality.
Finally, is the Noh mask too 'sacred' to be submitted to such
experiments or are they valid in the unending search for new sources of
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the theatrical? This final consideration will lead on to some mental experiments with the mask in theatre outside of Noh, or even outside a Japanese tradition, to see if the Noh mask can have any relevance or potential. Extending this even further, one might ask whether principles or techniques of Noh mask making can he applied to new types of masks in totally different forms of theatre. As the latter question risks leading into rather peripheral areas, it will be considered in an appendix to this chapter. (Appendix 2)
It is difficult to glean information on the situation for the mask maker today less because of the secrecy of the tradition (which is no longer very strong), than because of the social complexities of ’the world of Noh’, augmented, in this case, due to the very small number of fully professional mask makers, about a dozen in all at present. In addition, there is the delicate question of defining who is a
professional and who is not. Usual criteria such as full-time devotion to the art, ability to make a living from it, or quality of masks are further complicated by the importance of some affiliation with or recognition by Noh actors of the major schools and the emergence of a less discriminating and knowledgeable new breed of collectors, who also provide a market.
Noh suffered, as mentioned, a setback with the end of the Tokugawa shogunate, and although it regained its status, it never regained a financial support comparable to that given it in the Edo period. The destruction in World War II of several Noh theatres meant that several schools of Noh had to share the same space for rehersal, which for a while perhaps helped to break down some of the barriers between the schools. Noh actor Kanze Hideo, reminiscing about this period, says, about the end of the war,
Noh actors didn’t have enough to eat. Even so, I still think it was fortunate that the economic situation was unfavorable. Up until then, the
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different schools of Noh had never attempted artistic or other exchanges. They weren't supposed to have friendly relations. Actors seldom saw the performance of other schools. After the war, though, when most Noh stages had been destroyed by the bombings, all
schools were forced to share the few stages left unscathed. We used the same stages, and this gave us the opportunity to see how other groups performed. I could see what the Kanze School had to be proud of and what left something to be desired.2
The decrease in performances during the war had given the actors
more time to rehearse, rather than constantly perform or teach, going
through the same routine. Teaching had become a necessity in order to
make a living after the Meiji Restoration as Noh found new patronage
in wealthy businessmen who learned Noh for its social value. This is
very much the situation today; and learning Noh is quite popular, not
only among the exceptionally wealthy.
Given the financial situation of the immediate postwar period,
most Noh theatres had to make do with what they had and were not in a
position to commission or buy new masks. Consequently there was no
great need for Noh mask makers for other than restoration work on the
old masks. This situation has changed over the last thirty years.
Although most Noh actors can hardly be described as wealthy, more and
more Noh actors are buying new Noh m a s k s .
The last decade has seen the deaths of three of the 'grand old
men' of postwar Noh mask making: Suzuki Keiun, who wrote two books on
Noh mask making; Irie Mih5, who also wrote a book treating several
mask types and specific masterpieces in detail; and Kitazawa Nyöi.
Kitazawa started as an actor-apprentice, but changed to mask making.
He did much to revive the art in the Kansai area where he had a number 3 of students, some of whom have gone on to become professionals. A
2 Kanze Hideo, Concerned Theatre Japan, vol.l, no.H, 'Noh Business', P-7-
3 Such as, for instance, Taniguchi A k i k o . Kitazawa Ny5i's two sons, Kitazawa Ichinen in Kyoto and Kitazawa SanjirS in Kamakura have also established themselves as professional mask makers of note.
significant figure in the revival of interest in the Noh mask is
Nakamura Yasuo, who has not only written considerably on Noh masks, but has also actively stimulated the study of Noh masks through groups and field trips for this purpose. Although not a Noh mask maker himself, he is the son of one.
Given the limitations of the tradition of Noh mask making, the time consuming nature of the process, and the relative lack of interest on the part of many of the Noh theatres in using new masks, it may be unexpected, to say the least, that there are professional Noh mask makers today and even young people entering the tradition.
There are a few Noh mask makers today who express little interest in Noh and seldom see a performance. They approach Noh mask making as an art in itself, are concerned primarily with the visual aspect that is limited to the expression on the mask, all the while accepting the rules laid down for masks made for the Noh theatre. This is a
paradoxical position to take, but one which no doubt is possible. More difficult, however, and hardly possible in the long run, is remaining entirely aloof from the world of Noh - that is, if one wishes to see one's masks used on the stage. And that, it would seem, is the aim of a mask maker who willingly submits to the Noh mask's limitations both in terms of technique and a fixed number of types.
This brings up a very complex problem for the contemporary mask maker. Ideally he is trying to create in the mask an expression which is not static and complete in itself but which has dramatic potential - that is, can come alive within the context of performance. To achieve this it is not sufficient simply to hold the mask up at arms length at intervals while working on it and moving it. This is like the playwright trying to perform his own plays during the writing, to see how they work. Just as the playwright needs performances by actors of the completed play to see how it works dramatically, so the Noh mask
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maker needs to see his mask used on the Noh stage, moved by a Noh actor costumed for the role, who brings the mask to life within the context of a specific play.
This is an opportunity all too few mask makers have today. The masks used on the Noh stages usually belong to the collections of the Noh theatres and may be well over a hundred years old. There may even be a predilection for the old and obviously used mask, even if the mask itself is not of better quality than masks made by today’s makers. Furthermore, there is the cost factor involved. Noh theatres are at present not government subsidized (as is the Kabuki theatre); and most Noh actors are not financially well off. Most could not make a living if it were not for the great many amateur Noh practitioners who need lessons. Still, some new masks find their way to the Noh theatre and Noh actors are among the potential buyers of Noh masks.
Noh mask makers are no longer attached to particular Noh theatres or schools of Noh, not at any rate, on any permanent basis. Some have more contact with certain theatres than with others, and are entrusted the task of repair work when necessary on masks.
Aside from the obvious importance of contact with the Noh
theatres both for access to old masks and to potential buyers of masks, most mask makers would stress the need to see Noh regularly in order to fully understand their own art and absorb the spiritual quality of Noh. Many attend performances at least once a month, some even once a week.
Highly regarded mask makers prefer to sell to Noh actors and underplay the importance of other customers, including the Noh actors’ amateur students; some mask makers rely heavily, however, on private collectors to buy their masks. As a matter of fact, the last five years have seen a Noh mask boom in Japan, encouraged by the mass media and some degree of revitalized interest in traditional Japanese culture among the post-war generation. For a collector who does not practise
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Noli, the Noh mask becomes something to hang on the wall, place in a glass case or take out once in a while and move when showing it to visitors. In other words it becomes an art object and consequently its dramatic potential - the infinite possibilities of its expression -