SEGMENT AND OVERALL PERFORMANCE MEASURES

In analysing results using repeated measures ANOVA, three measures showed a significant main effect for trial: final cadence (p=0.009), change in PTA S4 (p=0.008) and change in PTA S1-4 (p=0.031). Post hoc testing revealed that final cadence was significantly higher in ISO as compared to CON (ISO: 204.02 ± 8.24 rpm, CON: 202.4 ± 9.23 rpm, p=0.026) and DYN (DYN: 201.35 ± 8.03 rpm, p=0.001) (Figure 4.1). No significant difference was observed between CON and DYN (p=0.158).

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Figure 4.1 Trial Conditions of Final Cadence.

Pairwise comparisons of trial conditions in Change in PTA S4, representing the change in PTA across half crank cycles 11-20, showed a significant reduction in ISO versus CON (ISO: 23.90 ± 16.61°, CON: 31.68 ± 19.12°, p=0.044) and in ISO versus DYN (DYN: 37.04 ± 12.88°, p=0.000) (Figure 4.2). There was no significant difference between DYN and CON (p=0.092). Change in PTA S1-4, representing the change in PTA across the full 20 half crank cycles, similarly showed ISO to be significantly lower than CON (ISO: 50.94 ± 24.03°, CON: 63.50 ± 19.71°, p=0.012) (Figure 4.3). DYN was not significantly different from CON (p=0.085) or ISO (p=0.419).

194.5 196.5 198.5 200.5 202.5 204.5 206.5 208.5 210.5 212.5

CON DYN ISO

Cadence (rpm)

* §

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Figure 4.2 Trial Conditions for Change in PTA Over S4 (half crank cycles 11-20).

Figure 4.3 Trial Conditions for Change in PTA Over S1-4 (half crank cycles 1-20).

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

CON DYN ISO

Change in PTA ( ° ) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

CON DYN ISO

Change in PTA ( ° ) § *

* significantly different to CON (p=0.044); § significantly different to DYN (p=0.000)

* significantly different to CON (p=0.012)

99

Final cadence also observed a significant interaction of trial x time (p=0.031), subsequent post hoc testing demonstrating a significantly higher final cadence in ISO Post16 as compared to CON Post16 (ISO Post16: 205.20 ± 9.97 rpm, CON Post16: 201.21 ± 9.66 rpm, p=0.014), and a significantly lower final cadence in DYN Post8 as compared to ISO at the same time point (DYN Post8: 198.785 ± 7.48 rpm, ISO Post8: 202.84 ± 7.39 rpm, p=0.011) (Figure 4.4).

Figure 4.4 Trial x Time Conditions for Final Cadence.

While analysis of final velocity would have been expected to yield results equivalent to those of final cadence, some discrepancies presented. Final velocity demonstrated a trend for significant interaction of trial x time (p=0.054), post hoc analysis revealing ISO Post16 to be significantly higher than CON Post16 (ISO Post16: 122.07 ± 5.94 km.h-1, CON Post16: 119.70 ± 6.34 km.h-1, p=0.015), and DYN Post8 significantly lower than ISO Post8 (DYN Post8: 118.22 ± 4.48 km.h-1, ISO Post8: 120.53 ± 4.34 km.h-1, p=0.014) (Figure 4.5). However, here DYN Post4 was additionally significant to CON Post4 (DYN Post4: 120.13 ± 4.74 km.h-1, CON Post4: 119.30 ± 4.94 km.h-1, p=0.049).

190 195 200 205 210 215

Pre Post4 Post8 Post16

Cadence (rpm) CON DYN ISO * §

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Figure 4.5 Trial x Time Conditions for Final Velocity.

A large number of measures demonstrated a significant main effect for time. These measures depicted a gradual decline in performance across each sprint of the trial reflective of the repeated measures design. Since the design itself accommodates for such outcomes, this data is omitted from the analysis. A summary of these results is provided in Appendix 5 (Tables A5.1 to A5.3).

Repeating analysis using within-subjects contrasts, meaningful improvement was observed in a number of overall measures (Table 4.2), in measures across the full sprint segment S1-4 (Table 4.3), and discrete segments S1 and S4 (Tables 4.4 and 4.5). Notably, no meaningful outcomes were observed in S2 or S3.

Overall measures showed both equivalence and disparity from those established in ANOVA (Table 4.2). Results of ISO Post 16 showed meaningful improvements in final cadence (91% likely) and final velocity (75% likely), while the dynamic trial showed similar outcomes at the same time point (final

112 114 116 118 120 122 124 126 128 130

Pre Post4 Post8 Post16

Sp ee d (k m .h -1) CON DYN ISO

* significantly different to CON Post16 (p=0.015); § significantly different to ISO Post8 (p=0.014)

α significantly different to CON Post4 (p=0.049)

*

§

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cadence – 89% likely; final velocity – 75% likely). DYN Post4 was, similarly, consistent in observing meaningful improvement in both final cadence and final velocity (99% very likely, 90% likely, respectively). However, DYN Post4, additionally, affected a greater than 75% likelihood of exceeding smallest worthwhile change (SWC) in peak torque (94% likely), time to peak torque (91% likely) and time to peak power (88% likely). No meaningful change was observed in peak power in any trial or time condition.

Table 4.2 Meaningful Changes in Overall Measures.

Post-CC measure (* units) Change in Measure from Pre-

CC value (%) Cohen’s d 90% Confidence Limits Likelihood of exceeding SWC Measure Trial/Time Experiment

Mean ± SD Control Mean ± SD Experiment Mean ± SD Control Mean ± SD

lower upper % Qualitative Inference Final DYN Post4 202.01 ±7.92 200.71 ±8.53 -0.22±1.21 -2.64±1.59 0.53 0.53 0.33 99 very likely Cadence DYN Post16 202.16 ±9.55 201.21 ±9.66 -0.20±1.71 -2.44±2.51 0.48 0.06 0.92 89 likely

ISO Post16 205.20±9.97 201.21±9.66 -0.47±2.40 -2.44±2.51 0.46 0.13 0.80 91 likely Final DYN Post4 120.13±4.74 119.30±4.94 -0.24±1.19 -1.81±1.47 0.39 0.14 0.63 90 likely Velocity DYN Post16 120.23±6.27 119.70±6.34 -0.21±1.68 -1.52±2.45 0.32 -0.01 0.66 75 likely ISO Post16 122.07±5.94 119.70±6.34 1.06±3.98 -1.52±2.45 0.53 -0.35 1.41 76 likely Peak

Torque

DYN Post4 220.67±26.33 206.00±26.52 6.24±5.95 -0.23±4.37 0.65 0.16 1.14 94 likely Time to

Peak Torque

DYN Post4 0.38±0.19 0.50±0.11 -21.73±35.10 18.31±34.72 -1.01 -2.08 0.05 91 likely

Time to Peak Power

DYN Post4 2.41±0.40 2.58±0.37 -11.15±7.01 -4.10±5.69 -0.45 -0.83 -0.08 88 likely

* cadence - rpm; velocity – ms-1_{; torque – Nm; time to peak – s}

Considering performance across the full 20 half crank cycles, the most substantial changes in S1-4 were observed in the DYN Post4 trial (Table 4.3). DYN Post4 showed a substantial reduction in performance time, reflecting a faster time to complete the fixed duration (81% likely). This was affected by an improvement in average velocity which showed a 97% likelihood of exceeding SWC. The DYN Post4 trial showed additional improvements in average power (86% likely), while improvements in average torque and work done in this trial were possibly meaningful (70% and 71% respectively). Supporting results of ANOVA analysis, change in peak torque angle showed a meaningful decrease in the ISO Post16 condition (76% likely), and a possible decrease at ISO Post8 (73%).

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Table 4.3 Meaningful Changes in S1-4 Measures.

Post-CC measure (* units) Change in Measure from

Pre-CC value (%) Cohen’s d

90% Confidence Limits

Likelihood of exceeding SWC Measure Trial/Time Experiment

Mean ± SD Control Mean ± SD Experiment Mean ± SD Control Mean ± SD

lower upper % Qualitative Inference Average

Power

DYN Post4 1050.67± 175.18 1005.00±173.52 1.59±1.91 -3.28±2.80 0.27 0.13 0.42 86 likely Average

Torque

DYN Post4 82.46±8.99 80.18±8.66 0.76±2.15 -2.14±2.39 0.27 -0.02 0.56 70 possibly Average

Velocity

DYN Post4 72.05±4.50 70.73±4.73 1.43±1.14 -0.92±0.81 0.36 0.23 0.49 97 very likely Change in ISO Post8 47.88±24.77 65.65±21.93 24.77±48.7 6.08 ± 17.97 0.15 -0.89 1.20 73 possibly PTA ISO Post16 47.91±24.74 67.62±21.61 23.08±31.86 9.97 ±16.30 0.11 -0.82 1.03 76 likely

Performance Time

DYN Post4 5.02±0.31 5.12±0.35 -0.80±1.63 1.01±0.84 -0.30 -0.52 -0.08 81 likely Work DYN Post4 5190.50±484.74 5069.17±520.19 0.24±2.06 -2.82±2.67 0.27 0.00 0.54 71 possibly Done

* power - watts; torque - Nm ; velocity – ms-1; PTA - ° ; performance time – s; work done – joules

Examining the first two half crank cycles, meaningful changes in S1 measures are presented in Table 4.4. Outcomes in DYN Post4 were predominant. In this trial condition a substantial improvement in average velocity (85% likely) was concomitant to a meaningful reduction in performance time (92% likely) over this phase of the sprint. The same trial observed a meaningful increase in average torque (90% likely), which, alongside a possible meaningful increase in average cadence (71%), supported a substantial increase in average power (87% likely). A meaningful increase (87% likely) in RPD was also observed in this trial condition. While a possible meaningful increase in average cadence was additionally affected by DYN Post16 (73%), the 75% threshold of meaningful inference was not exceeded in any other measure or trial condition.

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Table 4.4 Meaningful Changes in S1 Measures.

Post-CC measure (* units) Change in Measure from Pre-

CC value (%) Cohen’s d 90% Confidence Limits Likelihood of exceeding SWC Measure Trial/Time Experiment

Mean ± SD Control Mean ± SD Experiment Mean ± SD Control Mean ± SD

lower upper % Qualitative Inference Average

Cadence

DYN Post4 44.33±3.01 43.33±3.83 1.22±6.12 -2.05±2.48 0.42 -0.32 1.17 71 possibly DYN Post16 44.33±2.34 43.50±3.21 1.30±4.96 -1.56±2.70 0.37 -0.15 0.89 73 possibly Average

Power

DYN Post4 736.00±131.53 696.33±145.41 4.04±6.52 -2.98±3.39 0.35 0.12 0.58 87 likely Average

Torque

DYN Post4 167.41±19.87 160.11±22.16 5.12±6.20 -2.79±1.56 0.38 0.14 0.62 90 likely Average

Velocity

DYN Post4 26.01±1.64 25.14±2.14 2.05±3.15 -1.40±2.20 0.47 -0.03 0.96 85 likely

Performance

Time DYN Post4 1.23±0.08 1.29±0.10 -3.91±3.74 1.21±3.13 -0.86 -1.67 -0.04 92 likely

RPD DYN Post4 861.24±203.77 803.10±209.41 5.40±6.00 -3.14±5.57 0.34 0.12 0.55 87 likely * cadence - rpm; power - watts; torque - Nm; velocity – ms-1 ; performance time – s; RPD – watts.s-1

In the final phase of the sprint, S4 (Table 4.5), meaningful changes were most prevalent in ISO Post16. In this trial condition meaningful increase in average torque (81% likely), alongside a possible increase in average cadence (72%), affected a concomitant increase in average power that was in excess of the 75% likelihood of exceeding SWC (76% likely). Change in peak torque angle was substantially reduced in ISO Post16 (75% likely) reflecting a smaller drift in the crank angle where peak torque is developed over half crank cycles 11 to 20. Possible meaningful reductions in this measure were also present at the ISO Post4 (74%) and Post8 (71%) time points. Outcomes with respect to this measure therefore reflect those established in ANOVA analysis. ISO Post16 also observed a meaningful improvement in work done (81% likely); increase in work done was similarly meaningful in the dynamic trial at this time point (DYN Post16: 75% likely), and possibly meaningful at the Post4 time point (DYN Post4: 74% possible). The DYN Post16 trial additionally demonstrated a possible increase in average torque (71%) during this, final, phase of the sprint.

The trial interventions had no meaningful effect on S2, representing half crank cycles 3 and 4, or S3, representing half crank cycles 5 to 10 of the sprint.

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Table 4.5 Meaningful Changes in S4 Measures.

Post-CC measure (* units) Change in Measure from Pre-

CC value (%) Cohen’s d 90% Confidence Limits Likelihood of exceeding SWC Measure Trial/Time Experiment

Mean ± SD Control Mean ± SD Experiment Mean ± SD Control Mean ± SD

lower upper % Qualitative Inference Average

Cadence

ISO Post16 174.50±11.47 172.50±9.85 0.57±1.58 -1.05±1.09 0.25 0.08 0.42 72 possibly Average

Power

ISO Post16 1022.71±145.39 977.33±136.54 -0.83±3.30 -6.01±6.98 0.32 -0.01 0.66 76 likely Average

Torque

DYN Post16 55.59±4.48 53.76±4.68 -1.40±4.29 -4.97±6.05 0.36 -0.20 0.93 71 possibly ISO Post16 55.23±4.24 53.76±4.68 -0.88±3.92 -4.97±6.05 0.39 -0.01 0.78 81 likely Change in

PTA

ISO Post4 20.46±11.97 33.44±18.82 -58.90±97.22 27.59±148.85 -0.83 -2.72 1.06 74 possibly ISO Post8 23.19±17.73 28.98±22.98 -117.64±255.5 -7.90±28.71 -1.05 -3.57 1.47 71 possibly ISO Post16 26.80±15.90 33.61±20.08 -18.92±37.06 16.33±27.53 -0.34 -0.84 0.16 75 likely Work Done DYN Post4 1778.17±131.35 1737.67±119.77 -0.27±4.67 -3.74±4.24 0.33 -0.12 0.78 74 possibly

DYN Post16 1774.17±140.98 1721.50±149.78 -0.53±3.84 -4.78±6.33 0.40 -0.02 0.82 86 likely ISO Post16 1771.62±141.20 1721.50±149.78 -0.39±3.78 -4.78±6.33 0.42 -0.03 0.86 81 likely * cadence – rpm; power - watts; torque - Nm; PTA - ° ; work done - joules