Selection of Cases and Informants

The selection of a case is not random and representative but instead, theoretical or purposeful sampling is generally recommended. It is essential to consider the specific features of the cases, and the cooperation of the informants (Patton 1990; Eisenhardt 1989; Lincoln & Cuba 1985). Vital criteria for selecting cases are convenience, access and geographical proximity (Yin 1994). A pilot study was carried out as a preparatory instrument before starting fieldwork and data collection. The pilot case location of Helsinki was chosen for several favourable reasons linked to Helsinki. The informants were, due to earlier research cooperation, accessible, the location was favourable and it was possible to receive an unusual amount of documents and data such as internal meeting memos and planning documents. Furthermore, the pilot study place represented a complicated real case (as it was not yet an official regional marketing programme), and relevant data collection issues. The pilot study helped to schedule and refine the data collection plans, and helped to develop the interview guide together with a clarification of research design. The pilot site was a laboratory allowing different approaches on a trial basis, and the pilot study reports were a valuable tool for this present study (cf. Yin 1994: 74-76). The following principles were followed in the selection of the case locations:

1) The case place must be big enough (volume and value) to include normal aspects of a complete operation of place marketing practices.

2) The place should be important enough to also be of interest outside the case location. 3) All major practices of place marketing should be captured.

4) The management of the place marketing organisation should be willing to participate in the study, and allow access to the sources of information.

5) The case should represent developed and mature know-how in the area of place marketing in its own country, and be representative of the country.

The selection of key informants was carried out much with the snowballing technique (e.g Green et al. 1988). A description of the key informants and information sources is in the Appendix. The Chicago, Stockholm, Helsinki and Copenhagen Metropolitan Regions were

selected as case locations. According to research theory, four cases usually work well for a case study, since with fewer cases it can often be difficult to generate complex theory (Eisenhardt 1989: 545). Stockholm, Helsinki and Copenhagen are the capitals of the Northern European countries Sweden, Finland and Denmark, belonging to the European Union. Stockholm, Helsinki and Copenhagen also represent the major capitals in the Baltic Sea Region within the context of the EU. According to the principles of theoretical sampling,78 the choice of cases was made on conceptual grounds79, and the individual cases were selected in the same manner as a “laboratory researcher selects a new research object” (Yin 1994: 39- 40). In building theory from case studies, case studies are seen as experiments generalisable to theoretical propositions, not to populations or universes (Eisenhardt 1989: 537; Yin 1994: 10; Miles & Huberman 1994: 27). The interviewed people and key informants were selected to find the main characteristics of place marketing settings and processes in the locations (cf. Yin 1994; Eisenhardt 1989). This study applies the replication (literal and theoretical) logic. For a multiple-case study, the replication logic is the same as that used in multiple experiments. Each case can confirm or disconfirm the inferences derived from previous cases (Yin 1994; Miles & Huberman 1994: 27-29). The regions of Helsinki, Stockholm and Copenhagen represent different grounds. Copenhagen’s location near Germany and Sweden, with the largest Northern European airport, as well as the size and a longer history as part of the European Community gives the city a competitive advantage due to the geographical proximity, and makes it superior to Helsinki and Stockholm from the more central geographical aspect, making the access to the market easier for a place customer. Finland’s position as a neighbour of Russia has given (at least in the past) Helsinki its own special character as a gateway. Stockholm has its own unique peaceful history. Nowadays, Helsinki and Stockholm appear to be competing more for the same resources of foreign investment and companies than with Copenhagen. The U.S. location, Chicago, has a long background of place marketing practices. It was assumed that place marketing practices used in Chicago differ, due to the distance and culture, somewhat from the Northern European ones, and that

78 _{In theoretical sampling, cases are chosen for theoretical, not statistical, reasons (Eisenhardt 1989:537).}

79 _{Sampling on conceptual grounds means to fill theoretical categories and provide examples of polar types}

(Eisenhardt 1989: 537). “Most useful generalizations from qualitative studies are analytic, not sample-to- population (Miles & Huberman 1994: 28).

Chicago could act as a different benchmarking location in comparing practices. Like the other case locations, Chicago has also offered good access to the information sources, and many key place marketing specialists were accessible there. The findings of the Northern European cases are also compared jointly to the ones of Chicago, comparing the Northern European and U.S. practices.

Chicago was selected as the U.S. case, because of its obvious success80 in place marketing and due to the access to the information sources such as the scholars at the Northwestern University in Chicago. The investigator has worked in the Chicago Region, where the Northwestern University and its famous Kellogg Graduate School of Management in Evanston are important organisations for place marketing research. Through these connections, it was possible to increase the understanding of the U.S. place marketing practices and the differences to Northern European practices. The findings of the place marketing practices can possibly be applied in marketing planning to some extent also to other parts of Europe and the U.S, because the core elements and the essence of place marketing are more or less the same all over (e.g. Kotler et al. 2002; Berg & al. 2001, 1990, 1993).

80 _{Chicago´s success in place marketing has been suggested and discussed, for instance, in the following sources:}

Kotler et al.2002b; Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, Consumer and Community Affairs November. (http://www.chicagobusiness.com); 31 Fortune 500 companies had headquarters in the Chicago Metropolitan Area. (http://www.worldbusinesschicago.com/index.asp?A=1&LK=1&DIV=overviewDiv00 checked on 30.10.2002); Ninety-four of the Fortune 100 companies have a presence in Chicago in 1999).

MSA Profile and Investments Opportunities. Chicago-Illinois. Metropolitan Statistical Area. (http://www.e.org/economynterprix.htm checked at 13 October 2002; http://www.commerce.state.il.us/bus/ito/statistics.html checked on 12 November 2002); William A Testa´s draft

(Vice President and Senior Economist in the Research Department at the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago) 29.7.2002 “Chicago´s Economic Connections and Challenges” argues: “Chicago Metropolitan Area is the largest single domicile of manufacturing in the U.S., and added 479,800 new jobs between 1991 and 1998”; Chicago is second after New York having 107 headquarters of companies employing over 2,500 employees, . http://www.chicagometropolis2020org. Metropolis: Index, page 6, checked 12 July 2002.