The objective is to select operating parameters which will completely desolvate the sample, remove the maximum amount of matrix material during the ash stage, provide adequate analytical sensitivity and separate the analyte peak from non-atomic absorption peaks.
Selection of Temperature and Time Parameters
Dry Stage
The desolvation (or dry) stage of the program plays an important role in determining analytical precision.
The temperature and time are chosen to give complete desolvation of the sample before the ash stage is reached. The desolvation temperature and time for a particular sample will depend on the nature of the solvent and the sample volume. Generally, the temperature is set just below the boiling point of the solvent to ensure a sufficiently high rate of vaporization of the solvent. If the temperature is too high the sample may spatter, resulting in the loss of sample to the extremities of the furnace tube or on to the end windows of the atomizer. The same effect may occur if the time is not sufficiently long and the temperature ramp to the ash stage commences before desolvation is completed.
The temperature program for desolvation of samples containing two or more solvent constituents, such as strong aqueous acid solutions or mixed organic solvents, may be adjusted to take account of the different boiling points of the solvents. The first temperature of the desolvation stage is programmed in relation to the lowest boiling constituent of the solvent. As the most volatile solvent is removed, the temperature may be increased to effect vaporization of the less volatile solvent.
For example, a sample in 5% aqueous nitric acid may be programmed initially for desolvation near the boiling point of water. As the vaporization proceeds, the solution will become more concentrated in nitric acid until the azeotropic mixture (b.p. 121°) is attained. The temperature is gradually increased to effect sufficiently fast removal of the remaining solvent.
It should also be noted that analytical precision may be influenced by any tendency for the sample droplet to spread over or run along the tube as the solvent
evaporates. Such effects will be worse for organic solutions than for aqueous ones. Spreading or running of the sample droplet may be affected by the dry temperature and such effects will generally worsen with increasing temperature. The
temperature for drying should be low enough to prevent the sample spreading past the central profiled section of the tube. Spreading will not usually present a problem with partitioned tubes because the sample is confined to the center of the tube. The dry temperature will be the highest temperature consistent with rapid vaporization of the solvent and the minimization of spreading or running effects. The total dry time will usually be between one and three seconds per microliter of sample volume. For example, use 40 seconds dry time for a 20 μL volume of aqueous solution. For the same volume of organic solvent it may be possible to use a shorter time. For best precision, use sample volumes between 2 and 40 μL. The pyrolytic platform will require the use of somewhat higher dry temperatures than those needed for sampling from the tube wall because the platform does not reach as high a temperature as the wall. See references 301 and 303 for further information about the selection of dry parameters when platforms are used. In addition to the desolvation stage, an ash or char stage is usually necessary to further remove sample matrix components prior to the atomization stage. Matrix components may vaporize or decompose on heating to give background absorption resulting from absorption by molecular species or light scattering from particulate matter so that it is necessary to minimize the amount of matrix left in the tube when atomization begins. By ashing away the matrix, chemical interferences can also be reduced. With some samples, there may be little or no ashing required prior to atomization while other samples with complex matrices will require careful selection of the temperature and time parameters for ashing. These parameters are optimized for maximum removal of the sample matrix consistent with minimum loss of the analyte element. The ash temperature for organic matrices usually lies in the range 400 °C - 800 °C and the time is often comparable to the desolvation time. As with the desolvation stage, the atomizer may be programmed for ashing at several temperatures, depending on the complexity of the sample.
The recommended procedure to select the optimum ash temperature is to vary the ash temperature and measure the absorbance signal during the atomization stage. The maximum temperature for ashing is determined by increasing the ash
temperature and measuring the background-corrected absorbance for the analyte. When loss of the analyte occurs during the ash stage, an observable decrease in the atomic absorbance will occur. Since the aim of ashing is to minimize the
If there is too much background to permit accurate correction, then chemical modification of the sample should be attempted.
A guide to the maximum ash temperatures is given in Chapter Four. With a number of elements, the lowest temperature at which atomization commences depends on the composition of the matrix and each matrix should be checked for pre-
atomization losses of analyte by the method described above. The ashing time depends in part on the amount of matrix and is usually from 10 to 30 seconds. Once the temperature program for the ash step has been established, the
background absorbance during subsequent steps should be checked to ensure that there is no detectable background at the start of the 'read' period. It is important that the light beam is not attenuated in any way at this time because the
photomultiplier tube voltage is fixed at this instant. When a short step of 1 or 2 seconds duration with gas flow stopped is inserted before the atomize ramp step, the analyst can use the background only signal during this step to decide whether the ash time (with full gas flow) needs to be increased.
In many analytical situations, the analyte and background peaks can be separated more effectively by chemical modification of the sample (see Chapter One). Examples of chemical modifiers which change the volatilization of the analyte are given in Chapters One and Seven. With certain analyses, substantial background absorption occurs after the analyte absorption peak; the matrix can be chemically modified to reduce the atomization temperature of the analyte and give greater separation of atomic and background absorption peaks. An example is the determination of cadmium in sea water, where EDTA may be used to reduce the atomization temperature of cadmium (44).
For the same reason mentioned in the previous section, the ash temperatures needed when the pyrolytic platform is used will be higher than for wall ashing, generally by 100 °C. See references 301 and 303 for further information.
Specific examples of the optimization of the parameters for sample ashing are given in the introduction to Chapter Seven.
Atomization Stage and Heating Rate
The atomization temperature and the rate of heating of the atomizer from ash to atomize temperature (the ramp rate) affect the sensitivity of the analysis. Atomization temperatures vary from element to element and the optimum
atomization temperature for a particular element may vary slightly according to the matrix. The figures given in Chapter Four as the atomization temperature for each element should be used in the first instance.
The variation of peak absorbance with atomization temperature for elements of high, medium and low volatility (cadmium, copper and vanadium) is shown in Figure 13.
Generally, the optimum temperature for elements in aqueous or mineral acid matrices will be the lowest temperature giving the maximum absorbance, since the lifetime of the graphite tube is prolonged at lower temperatures. These optimum temperatures are approximately 1300 °C for cadmium, 2100 °C for copper and 2700 °C for vanadium, as Figure 13 indicates.
Figure 13. Effect of atomization temperature on peak absorbance
The peak absorbance does not show a continuous increase with atomization temperature because the rate of loss of atomic vapor from the atomizer also increases with temperature. Loss of atomic vapor occurs by diffusion, convection and expansion of the gas in the atomizer. The diffusion coefficient for removal of the atomic vapor increases with temperature according to the relationship: D a Tm
where the exponent m varies between 1.5 and 2 (45), while expansion of the atomic vapor also increases with temperature. In consequence, there is a temperature at which the increase in the rate of analyte atomization with temperature is
maximized with respect to the increase in the rate of loss of atoms from the light path.
In many analyses, however, and particularly those in which the sample matrix is relatively non-volatile, a higher atomization temperature may be necessary to ensure that matrix products do not accumulate in the atomizer. For example, an atomization temperature of 1300 °C for Cd would be too low for a seawater matrix and a temperature of 2000 °C or more would be necessary.
The atomization time is usually set as the minimum time required for complete vaporization and removal of the analyte and matrix from the atomizer. This is the time required for the atomic absorption signal to return to the baseline; when the graphite tube atomizer is programmed to display the atomization stage, this time is readily measured from the CRT display. It should be noted that this time interval can be decreased by increasing the gas flow rate (see 'Selection of Gas Flow and Read Parameters' later in this chapter).
With some elements of low volatility, such as strontium. vanadium. titanium and molybdenum, both the atomization temperature and time are important parameters in ensuring the minimization of memory effects. If the analyte element is not completely vaporized and removed during the atomize stage, an enhancement in the signal during the next atomization may result. The element may accumulate gradually in the atomizer, causing a gradual rise in absorbance over a series of atomizations. This effect is shown for strontium in Figure 14.
Figure 14. Memory effect for strontium
Atomization with the specified volumes resulted in an increasing peak absorbance with each volume. Problems of memory are overcome by increasing either the atomization temperature or the time, or both.
Memory effects may also be detected by carrying out blank firings of the atomizer (i.e. with no sample present). If the atomic signal for the blank firing following atomization is higher than the signal for subsequent blank firings, steps must be taken to minimize the memory effect.
The peak absorbance also depends on the ramp rate. The effect of ramp rate on peak absorbance for cadmium, copper and vanadium is shown in Figure 15.
Figure 15. Effect of atomization ramp on peak absorbance
With cadmium, the peak absorbance reaches a plateau at a ramp rate of
approximately l000 °C per second while copper and vanadium show the greatest sensitivity at the maximum ramp rate (2000 °C per second), Generally, the less
Modern atomic absorption spectrometers allow absorbance measurements to be made in either the peak height or peak area mode. For some applications, the choice will be straightforward; for others, it will be necessary to obtain
experimental measurements to decide which method is best suited to the particular analysis.
Peak area measurements, for example, will often extend the calibration linearity. As shown in Figure 16, the calibration from peak area is clearly linear while the peak height calibration shows some curvature.
For many elements, the sensitivity of peak height measurement will be better than that of peak area measurement. This is especially the case with more volatile elements such as cadmium and lead which produce narrow absorbance peaks. With elements requiring high atomization temperatures, the peaks are broader and the peak area sensitivity may be comparable to peak height sensitivity.
The relative precision offered by the two methods of peak measurement will also vary according to analytical circumstances. Generally, it is preferable to use the method which gives the best compromise in respect of sensitivity, accuracy, linearity and precision.
With some analyses, the highest ramp rate is not always necessary. For example, when the atomic peak overlaps background absorption, an increase in the ramp rate will result in less separation of the atomic and background peaks; this will affect the accuracy and precision of background-corrected absorption
measurements.
When platforms are used, the maximum ramp rate for atomization should be used. Also, it is desirable to use as high an atomization temperature as is practicable, for two reasons. First, the atomic signals become sharper with increasing temperature and, secondly, the chemical interferences are often reduced at higher temperatures. The atomization temperature should be as high as possible consistent with the atomic signal occurring within the constant temperature portion of the atomization temperature profile.
Selection of Gas Flow and Read Parameters
A flow of inert gas through and around the graphite tube serves to remove the sample components from the atomizer at each stage of the analysis and to protect the graphite tube from oxidation. The preferred inert gas is argon but nitrogen can also be used.
During the dry and ash steps of the analysis, the total gas flow through the atomizer should be programmed for the maximum rate of 3.0 L/min, since the most efficient removal of the products of these steps will occur with the highest flow rate. During the atomization stage, the gas flow may be reduced to zero thus improving sensitivity for the analyte element; this effect is a result of the increase in residence time of the atomic vapor within the optical path. Generally, the best sensitivities will be realized when the gas flow rate during the atomization stage is programmed at zero.
Figure 17 shows the variation in absorbance with gas flow rate during atomize for several elements.
Figure 17. Variation of peak absorbance with inert gas flow rate during atomization
Total Gas Flow Rate (liters per minute)
Peak Absorbanc
It should be realized that interruption of the gas flow during the atomization stage will shorten graphite tube lifetimes, due to increased exposure of the hot tube to atmospheric oxygen. Therefore, it is desirable that the gas flow be reduced or stopped for as short a time as possible during the atomize stage. The time for which the gas flow is reduced should be programmed for each element and matrix in relation to the minimum time required for collection of the necessary information on the analyte peak absorbance, area etc. With elements requiring high atomization temperatures, the absorbance peak may be quite broad and the tail of the peak may extend for several seconds after the maximum. When the gas flow is stopped, resumption of the flow shortly after the peak maximum will minimize degradation of the graphite tube. With this procedure, the choice of measurement method will depend on the relative precision of the two methods and the relationship between response and concentration.
For the same reason, it is desirable that the inert gas used during the high temperature stages of the cycle be of as high a purity as possible.
Atomization in an argon atmosphere will give better sensitivities than those obtained in a nitrogen atmosphere and graphite tube lifetime is usually considerably longer when argon is used.
For some elements, such as barium and europium, the improvement in sensitivity with the use of argon is several-fold and is related to differing chemical processes occurring in the furnace with the two gases. For most other elements, the
improvement with argon is slight and results from the slightly lower diffusion coefficient of atomic vapor into argon, since the diffusion coefficient is inversely proportional to the square root of the molecular mass.
The gas type ('normal' or 'alternate') may be programmed on the graphite tube atomizer for any stage of the program. This facility may be used in a number of ways. A low purity sheath gas may be used during the pre-atomization stages of the cycle and a higher purity gas during the atomization stage. With elements that show a marked difference in sensitivity between nitrogen and argon, the use of argon may be reserved for the atomization stage. Furthermore, a reactive gas such as oxygen may be used during the ash stage. It has been shown that for certain analyses, the use of oxygen during the ash may give more efficient oxidation and removal of matrix components (46, 47) resulting in lower background absorption during atomize and permitting the use of lower ash temperatures. However, oxidation of the graphite tube will be much more rapid when oxygen is used. When the graphite tube atomizer is programmed for a reduction of gas flow, the reduction is not instantaneous. It normally takes about one second for the flow through the atomizer to be reduced to zero. In most analyses, the delay in
interruption of flow will not affect the analytical signal. When the atomization peak occurs within one second of the time at which the flow is reduced, the peak
absorbance may be affected by the gas flow through the atomizer at the point of peak atom production. With volatile elements, such as cadmium or zinc, and in analyses where the maximum ash temperature is high relative to the temperature chosen for atomization, the peak atomization temperature will often be reached within one second or so of the start of the atomize ramp. In these cases, it will be necessary to compensate for the delay in gas reduction by inserting a step of appropriate length in the program prior to the atomize ramp to reduce the gas flow to the programmed value before the analyte atomization process begins.
The magnet is enabled when ‘BC ON’ mode is selected and is subsequently switched on by the 'read' command ('Yes' in the READ COMMAND column on the screen page for FURNACE PARAMETERS). The 'read' period determines the length of time for which the magnet is on and the instrument collects absorbance readings. It is preferable to set the 'read' period as short as is practicable to minimize the 'magnet on' period and in gerl8ral the read command should be set tor the beginning of the ramp to atomize temperature and continue as long as necessary to measure the peak. As noted earlier in this Chapter, care should be taken to ensure that there is no attenuation of the source light beam when the instrument 'read' begins.