Self efficacy and Reporting

Although no studies were found that has directly used self-efficacy to predict reporting of sexual harassment, there are studies that have identified self-efficacy as a predictor to whistle blowing.

Miceli & Near (1992) provided a model that establishes the potential importance of self-efficacy to decisions related to whistleblowing. Self-efficacy explicitly plays an important role in this model as a component within the personal factor category. The whistle blowers personal situations will influence their decision through a) whether they have alternate sources of financial and emotional support, b) what the costs will be to them personally and c) whether their individual characteristics are such that they would be likely to take such a step (Near & Miceli, 1985).

Thus far there are only two studies that have studied the effect of self-efficacy as a personal characteristic on whistleblowing. In MacNab & Worthley (2008), study self- efficacy has been found to influence participant’s propensity to report internal whistleblowing, consistently in both the US and Canada. Seasoned participants with greater management and work experience demonstrated higher levels of self-efficacy and

influence of self-efficacy on whistle blowing but did not find a strong correlation as proposed by Miceli & Near (1992).

There are also studies that have identified similar constructs to self-efficacy as predictors to whistleblowing and reporting sexual harassment. According to Judge & Kammeyer-Mueller (2011) in his study of core-evaluations concepts had stated that the traits such as self-esteem, locus of control, neuroticism and generalized self-efficacy share many similarities, for example, all these traits assess the positivity of self-description and showed a similar correlation pattern to subjective well-being, job satisfaction and job performance. Thus, it is appropriate for studies using similar construct as self-efficacy to be reviewed because these constructs help in understanding why self-efficacy is a predictor to reporting sexual harassment.

Knapp, Faley, Ekeberg & Dubois (1997) review of determinants of individual’s reaction to sexual harassment found that the individual’s personal attributes affect their reaction when faced with a sexually harassing behaviour. For example, the individual’s level of assertiveness was found to be positively related to confronting the harasser (Adams-Roy & Barling, 1998). Women with higher levels of self-esteem, internal locus of control or other possible evaluations of self tend to employ initiator-focused responses strategies i.e. making a formal report than individuals with lower self-esteem and external locus of control (Roth & Fedor, 1993 in Knapp, Faley, Ekeberg & Dubois, 1997; Chiu, 2003; Near & Miceli, 1985). In fact, research in the stress/coping literature underpins the possibility that self-esteem or other possible evaluations of self also has an influence

on individual expectations for responses outcomes (Knapp, Faley, Ekeberg & Dubois, 1997).

Also, studies on predictors of whistle blowing by Near & Miceli (1985) and Miceli & Near (2005) found that the employee’s personal characteristics (i.e. self-efficacy) played an important role in the whistle blowing process.

Lazarus & Folkman (1984) have noted that coping strategies may be more effective when they match the characteristics of the person using them. Long, Kahn and Schutz (1992) built a causal model of stress and coping taking into consideration the intervening effects of environmental and individual variable on coping strategies and outcomes. The authors reasoned that environmental variables (e.g. work support and type of stressor) and individual characteristics (e.g. demographics and self-efficacy) have an effect on stressful circumstances and related coping options.

In dealing with sexual harassment, people who believe they can exercise some control over the situation will try hard to do so and are perseverance in their efforts. Those who judge themselves highly efficacious would find it easier to dismiss the situation than those who have lower efficacy level who exhibit increased subjective distress.

blow the whistle or report sexual harassment (MacNab & Worthley, 2008). Consistent with this line of reasoning, an individual with high self-efficacy will be in control when faced with sexual harassment. It is likely that individuals with high in self-efficacy will be more apt to believe that they can effectively cope with the sexual harassment experience; such individuals are likely to view sexual harassment as unjust, unprovoked and inappropriate (Gallus, 2010). As such, with regard to reporting the sexual harassment experiences, individuals who have high self-efficacy will be more likely to report their experience and cope effectively.

3.5.3.2 Studies in Malaysia

There are no studies in Malaysia linking self-efficacy and reporting of sexual harassment. However, Danila (2012) examined the relationship between self-efficacy and intention towards whistle-blowing found that auditors with a high self-efficacy had the intention to whistle-blow if it was deemed necessary.

Another point to consider is that part of the reason why women do not report sexual harassment in Malaysia citied by various studies was that they lacked the confidence, was embarrassed, was helpless, afraid of the consequences, backlash from colleagues or superiors, criticized for complaining about the experiences, threatened, considered a “troublemaker”, encouraged to drop a complaint, more trouble followed and was not believed. (Selvarani & Tan, 2007; Zarina, 2007; Phuah, 2008; Gomez, 2009, Cruez, 2009; Loh, 2009). All these are indicators that the women lacked the much needed self- confidence to muster enough courage to make the report.

Self-efficacy concerns the belief that one can effectively handle given situations; firm belief in one’s efficacy can sustain efforts over prolonged periods in the face of uncertainty or repeated negative outcomes, i.e. the fear of retaliation (Bandura, 1997; 1982). Conversely, a low sense of efficacy will only cause one to doubt their capabilities, withdraw away from incidents in which they view as personal threat i.e. the harassing situation.

3.5.3.3 Gaps in the Literature

Thus far, there are no studies on self-efficacy and reporting of sexual harassment. Even empirical investigation on the influence of self-efficacy on whistle blowing decisions have been few, this presents a notable gap in the literature which this study will address.