4.3. Functions of the studied phrases
4.3.3. Selja taga (back+behind)
Selja taga (back+behind) is semantically one of the most interesting phrases in
my data for several reasons. First, as it is the most frequent phrase with the strongest association between its components, it has more usage patterns than the rest of the studied phrases. Second, not all of the usage patterns are con- nected to each other. That is, not all of the patterns can be placed on a single diachronic continuum. However, all of the patterns are connected to the source form. Thus, it seems that in the complex unit selja taga (back+behind) has multiple branches of development, all of which start from the simple post- positional phrase result in a complex function word. Selja taga (back+behind) expresses six functions (see Figure 7).
37 The simple function word küljes also comes in three-form sets (külge-küljes-küljest) expressing the lative, locative, and separative.
Figure 7. The distribution of the functions of selja taga (back+behind) in the etTenTen
corpus
Selja taga (back+behind) is most commonly (45%; 4,932 out of 10,958) used in
its literal meaning, i.e. BP+LOC (as exemplified in (69)). It is possible to use the body part term selg (back) to refer to object parts as well but such usages are not productive. The data suggest there were only 41 examples (less than 1%) where selja taga (back+behind) could be interpreted as referring to the posterior region of an object (as in (70)).
(69) Näärivana unusta-s vitsakimbu-Ø maha kingikoti-Ø
Father Christmas forget-PST.3SG ferule-GEN down gift bag-GEN
aga peit-is tull-es selja-Ø taha.
but hide-PST.3SG come-GER back-GEN behind.LAT ‘Father Christmas forgot the ferule but hid the gift bag behind his back when coming.’ [luuletus.www.ee]
(70) Segesta tempel asu-b üksildase-l kallaku-l ning Segesta temple lie-3SG lonely-ADE slope-ADE and
templi-Ø selja-Ø taha jää-vad ligipääsmatu-d
temple-GEN back-GEN behind.LAT stay-3PL invious-PL
lubjakivimäe-d.
lime stone mountain-PL
Lit. The Segesta temple is situated on a lonely slope and behind the back of the temple remain invious lime stone mountains.
‘The Segesta temple is situated on a lonely slope and behind the temple there are invious lime stone mountains.’ [www.novatours.ee]
However, in a little more than half of the examples, selja taga (back+behind) is lexicalized and expresses non-compositional meanings. The largest group among such usages is the category SPACE-TIME, which occurs on 4179 occa- sions (38%). This pattern comprises the uses where selja taga (back+behind) is used to express locative, temporal and ordinal functions. As these are not
BP+LOC; 4932; 45% OP+LOC; 41; 0% SPACE- TIME; 4179; 38% COVERT- NESS; 870; 8% SUPPORT; 611; 6% CONCEAL- MENT 325; 3% N = 10,958
always distinguishable, they are considered to fall under the same category and discussed together. The temporal function is exemplified in (71) where the phrase refers to a temporal relationship between the LM (Rooba) and the TR (nädal ‘week’), which cannot be taken to be located behind the LM physically because it has a temporal dimension, i.e. it refers to a period of time. The loca- tive function (exemplified in (72)) is very close to the compositional usage (BP+LOC) on the one hand, and to the temporal sense on the other hand. It is close to BP+LOC because they both express the posterior region, and it is hard to decide if the body part meaning has faded or not. However, the locative is distinguishable from the BP+LOC due to its similarity to temporal uses. When comparing the temporal selja taga in (71) and locative sense in (72), it can be seen that both of them use the same verb – jääma/jätma ‘remain/leave’. Below, in section 4.6.3.1.3, it will be shown that jääma/jätma ‘remain/leave’ is par- ticularly prone to co-occur with this function. The shift to temporal meaning is based on the metaphor TIME AS SPACE, more specifically, the Moving Ob- server metaphor because the past events (e.g. the week) are coded/projected as being left behind our backs (Lakoff, Johnson 1999; Veismann 2001). Similarly, there is an implied motion present in example (72) – the LM is projected as moving away from the TR (Soomaa), i.e. leaving it behind. No such motion is present in example (69) that illustrates the category BP+LOC.
(71) Tõepoolest, juba neli aasta-t põhjanaabri-te
Indeed already four year-PRT Northern neighbour-PL.GEN
suurklubi-Ø juures treeni-nud Rooba mäng-is
big club-GEN at train-PST.PTCP Rooba play-PST.3SG
üleeile KalPa-Ø vastu suurepärase-Ø mängu-Ø,
day before yesterday KalPa-GEN against great-GEN game-GEN
jät-tes ühtlasi selja-Ø taha eduka-Ø nädala-Ø
leave-GER also back-GEN behind.LAT successful-GEN week-GEN. Lit. Indeed, Rooba who has played at a club of our Northern neighbours for four years now had a great game the day before yesterday, and also left behind a suc- cessful week.
‘Rooba who has been playing at a club of our Northern neighbours for four years now had a great game the day before yesterday, which also ended a successful week.’ [www.epl.ee]
(72) Soomaa jä-i kiiresti selja-Ø taha, sest
Soomaa remain-PST.3SG quickly back-GEN behind.LAT because
nüüd on tee-d kiire-d ja laia-d.
now be.3SG road-PL quick-PL and broad-PL
Lit. Soomaa stayed behind quickly because now the roads are quick and broad. ‘Soomaa was left behind quickly because now the roads are good and broad.’ [www.aiaidee.ee]
In addition to locative and temporal usages, the category SPACE-TIME also includes a group of examples where selja taga (back+behind) expresses the
order of succession. In such cases selja taga (back+behind) usually refers to the ranking of individuals or teams in competitions (73), or the state of having surpassed something in a more abstract sense (74). They are considered to fall under the locative-spatial category because in this case selja taga (back+behind) is also prone to the verb jääma/jätma (74), however, it is not confined to it (73). Additionally, such usages are profiled through motion and therefore they are not always distinguishable from the locative and temporal selja taga (back+behind). (73) Eestlas-te selja-Ø taha mahtu-sid esikümne-sse
Estonian-PL.GEN back-GEN behind.LAT fit-PST.3PL top ten-ILL
veel mitme-d väga tugeva-d rattaorienteerumisriigi-d /…/ more many-PL very strong-PL bike orienteering country-PL
Lit. Behind the back of the Estonians, there were many good bike orienteering countries in the top ten
‘There were many more good bike orienteering countries in the top ten besides (after) Estonia.’ [www.orienteerumine.ee]
(74) Toiduainetööstus tõus-is kolmanda-ks, jät-tes
food industry rise-PST.3SG third-TRL leave-GER
selja-Ø taha puidutööstuse-Ø.
back-GEN behind.LAT timberindustry-GEN
Lit. The food industry rose to the third position leaving the timber industry behind its back.
‘The food industry surpassed the timber industry and rose to the third position.’ [entsyklopeedia.ee]
The rest of the lexicalized usages of selja taga (back+behind) are divided between three relatively small and yet clearly distinct functional categories – COVERTNESS (8%, 870 occurrences), SUPPORT (6%, 611 occurrences), and CONCEALMENT (3%, 325 occurrences).
COVERTNESS includes examples where selja taga (back+behind) is used to refer to a deceitful or secretive manner in which something is done. The semantic shift is based on the inability of human beings to observe their posterior region (at all times). The events that occur behind a person’s back can go unnoticed for that person. In examples of this category (as (75)), the locative interpretation has faded and the complex unit selja taga (back+behind) only expresses COVERTNESS.
(75) Et Obama-Ø administratsioon on tõepoolest asu-nud
that Obama-GEN administration be.3SG indeed set-PST.PTCP
oma-Ø truu-de liitlas-te selja-Ø taga
one-GEN loyal-PL.GEN ally-PL.GEN back-GEN behind.LOC
nen-de arvel sobingu-i-d sõlmi-ma /…/
they-GEN expense deal-PL-PRT make-SUP
Lit. The Obama administration has indeed started to make deals behind the back of their loyal allies.
‘The Obama administration has indeed started to make deals behind their loyal allies’ backs.’ [bhr.balanss.ee]
In the function SUPPORT, selja taga (back+behind) expresses the moral support towards the LM (as in (76)). The semantic shift is based on the physical conception of support – the person(s) that are located in one’s posterior region may offer LM support in the physical sense as well as in more abstract ways, as can be observed in example (76). However, this pattern is mostly used to refer to purely moral support (as in (77)).
(76) … siis ütle-si-n ta-lle et keegi ei austa-Ø
then tell-PST-1SG s/he-ALL that somebody NEG respect-CONNEG
sin-d sest poisi-d ol-i-d kõik mu-l selja-Ø
you-PRT because boy-PL be-PST-3PL all I-ADE back-GEN
taga ja kui ta ole-ks mu-lle midagi tei-nud
behind.LOC and if s/he be-COND I-ALL something do-PST.PTCP
ole-ksi-d nad ta-lle tappa and-nud
be-COND-3PL they s/he-ALL beating give-PST.PTCP
Lit. Then I told him/her that no one respects them because all of the boys were standing right behind my back, and had s/he done anything, they would have given him/her a beating.
‘Then I told him/her that no one respects them because all of the boys were standing right behind me; had she done anything they would have given him/her a beating.’ [www.lapsemure.ee]
(77) Ehk teis-te sõna-de-ga: rahvas on selgelt
that is other-PL.GEN word-PL-COM people be.3SG clearly
Meikari-Ø selja-Ø taga ja arva-b pigem, et
Meikar-GEN back-GEN behind.LOC and think-3SG rather that
justiitsminister valeta-b.
minister of justice lie-3SG
Lit. In other words – people are clearly behind the back of Meikar and rather think that the Minister of Justice is lying.
‘In other words – people are clearly behind Meikar, and rather think that the Minister of Justice is lying.’
[www.maaleht.ee]
The last function to be discussed here is CONCEALMENT, where selja taga (back+behind) is used to express state of the TR, which is described as being sheltered by the LM (as in (78)). The semantic shift is based on the conception of being physically protected or taken care of by somebody. However, as can be seen in example (79), this pattern also occurs in negative contexts where selja
taga (back+behind) is used to refer to relation that the TR unrevealed by the
LM (here: ACTA). Nevertheless, such examples are rare.
(78) Sellise-Ø mehe-Ø selja-Ø taga on turvaline ela-da.
This kind man-GEN back-GEN behind.LOC be.3SG secure live-INF Lit. It is secure to live behind the back of such a man
(79) Ajakirjaniku-d või-ks lõpuks oll-a nii julge-d ja
journalist-PL can-COND finally be-INF that bold-PL and
rääki-da viimaks ka se-da, mis on ACTA-Ø
speak-INF at last also this-PRT what be.3SG ACTA-GEN
selja-Ø taga ja tema-Ø varjus.
back-GEN behind.LOC and s/he-GEN shadow.LOC Lit. The journalists could finally come out and say what is behind the back of ACTA and in the lee of it.
‘The journalists should finally come out and say what is behind ACTA.’ [viker- raadio.err.ee]
As stated above, all of the categories that include lexicalized uses of selja taga (back+behind) – spatio-temporal, COVERTNESS, SUPPORT, and CON- CEALMENT – do not seem to form a single chain of development. Instead, it seems that each one of them is the product of separate process of lexicalization. However, it is clear that the instances of selja taga (back+behind) that fall under the spatio-temporal category are related to each other. The shift from spatial to temporal domain is cognitively substantiated, and is one of the most basic func- tional shifts in grammaticalization (e.g. Heine, Kuteva 2002: 53). Nevertheless, it is hard to imagine the same type of relationship between the spatio-temporal category and other functional categories described. For instance, the category COVERTNESS is clearly connected to the pattern BP+LOC, but not to usages where selja taga (back+behind) is used to refer to temporal relations nor is it semantically related to any other patterns (SUPPORT or CONCEALMENT). Thus, it seems that the usages that fall under distinct categories are independent developments triggered by lexicalization of the usages that belong to BP+LOC.
However, the shift from BP+LOC to each functional category – SPACE- TIME, COVERTNESS, SUPPORT, and CONCEALMENT – is in line with the general principles of grammaticalization and similar developments can be found in other languages. For instance, the body part back is probably one of the most frequent sources of function words referring to the posterior region. Also, it is widely known that body part terms tend to develop into words that express spa- tial notions, which may then further develop to express temporal notions (c.f. Heine, Kuteva 2002: 47). Estonian selja taga (back+behind) has developed into a temporal marker that refers to events in the past relative to the Moving Observer (as in the case of the English behind in (80)). In addition, Svorou (1994: 158–159) describes a category termed POSTERIOR ORDER, which includes such temporal usages of posterior locative grams where the LM and TR are moving in the same direction and the TR comes after the LM (and also reaches the goal after the LM). The usages of selja taga (back+behind) exempli- fied in (73) and (74) can also be described in such terms.
(80) I’m so glad winter is finally behind us, but considering there was snow on the
ground only 2 weeks ago, spring veggies aren’t exactly on the table yet.39
In addition to the spatio-temporal function, there is evidence of more abstract and also more specific functions that are associated with the body part back. For instance in Wolof, the body part term gannaaw ‘back’ expresses among other meanings the notion of absence (Moore 2000: 226). This notion is also expressed by utterances that include the body part back in English (as in example (81)). In this case, however, the utterance is not a grammatical item but rather an idiomatic expression. However, it expresses the same meaning as the instances of selja taga (back+behind) exemplified in (75). The rest of the functions – CONCEALMENT (82) and SUPPORT (83) – are also expressed by the English behind.
(81) … recently she has been telling me that our other friends have been talking about me behind my back, saying negative things.40
(82) The singer, currently staying at his holiday home in Portugal, told friends he has
no idea who is behind the ‘completely false’ accusation.41
(83) I am 100% behind you. I know you’ll find a way to achieve your dream :)42 The Estonian body part term selg ‘back’ occurs in many phraseological expres- sions, but is not a source of any other function words besides selja taga (back+behind), except perhaps for seljas ‘(to have) on’, which is used in connection with wearing clothing (see example (84)). However, it should be noted that the simple function word taga ‘behind’ has developed from a noun that refers to a hind part. However, the source form has disappeared from usage and the function word is no longer transparent. In contemporary language taga ‘behind’ is highly polysemous and also expresses also more abstract functions, such as SUPPORT (85), and CONCEALMENT (86), which are also expressed by selja taga (back+behind).
39 https://www.facebook.com/ChefNicoleGaffney/posts/805964169458153 (Accessed 11.01.2016) 40 https://psychologies.co.uk/my-friends-are-talking-about-me-behind-my-back (Accessed 11.01.2016) 41 http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2746719/I-no-idea-s-sex-claims-says-Sir-Cliff- Richard-insists-absolutely-hide.html (Accessed 11.01.2016) 42 http://www.baconismagic.ca/ecuador/the-secret-im-most-afraid-to-tell-you/ (Accessed 11.01.2016)
(84) “Ilublogija Liina Ütt: teksa-sid näe-b minu-ø
Beauty blogger Liina Ütt jean-PL.PRT see-3SG I-GEN
seljas hea-l juhu-l paar korda-ø aasta-s!”43
back.LOC good-ADE case-ADE couple time-PRT year-INE Lit. Beauty blogger Liina Ütt: you can see jeans on my back a couple of times a year at best!
ʻBeauty blogger Liina Ütt: you can see jeans on me a couple of times a year at best!ʼ
(85) Tead-is, et tema-ø taga on rahvas.44 know-PST.3SG that s/he-GEN behind.LOC be.3SG people
Lit. S/he knew there were people behind him/her. ‘S/he knew there were people supporting him/her.’
(86) Teinekord on süütu-ø lapsenäo-ø taga
sometimes be.3SG innocent-GEN child’s face-GEN behind.LOC
võimuahne naine.45 power-hungry woman
‘Sometimes there is a power-hungry woman behind an innocent face of a child.’ The fact that the simple postposition taga ‘behind’ may carry a similar function as selja taga (back+behind) does not mean that selja taga (back+behind) is not a lexicalized holistic unit. For instance, in the examples (76)–(78) selja taga (back+behind) could not be substituted with the simple form taga ‘behind’ without altering the meaning. In example (79), the switch would be possible because there are enough contextual hints present. Thus, although taga ‘behind’ and selja taga (back+behind) to a certain extent carry the same function, they cannot be replaced by each other in all contexts. Additionally, selja taga (back+behind) is more complex, less grammaticalized and therefore more specific than taga ‘behind’, which is more polysemous, abstract, may require more context. A need for a more specific means of expression may account for the use of selja taga (back+behind) in these functions. However, not all of the functions of selja taga (back+behind) can be expressed by taga ‘behind’ alone. For instance, taga ‘behind’ cannot be used in the temporal and locative func- tions exemplified in (71), (72) or in (74). A similar train of thought has been put forward by Sigurd (1993), who also claims that … “multi-word prepositions are often specifications of simple prepositions” (1993: 204). The more specific meaning is achieved by adding the noun (ibid.).
43 http://www.ohtuleht.ee/674765/ilublogija-liina-utt-teksasid-naeb-minu-seljas-heal-juhul- paar-korda-aastas (Accessed 11.01.2016)
44 http://www.eki.ee/dict/ekss/index.cgi?Q=taga&F=M (Accessed 11.01.2016) 45 http://www.eki.ee/dict/ekss/index.cgi?Q=taga&F=M (Accessed 11.01.2016)