Semi-structured interviews with teachers

Interviews are an essential source of case study evidence because most case studies are about human affairs or behavioural events (Yin, 2009, p.108).

A semi-structured interview was conducted with each of the teachers before and after the AI intervention. The initial interview focused upon the teachers’ views about pupil participation, making reference to their completed rating scales (see Section 7.4.3) and the Tree of Participation model of pupil participation (see Figure 2), which was carefully explained (see Appendix 16 for an example of this explanation in the transcript of the initial interview with Teacher B). Then each teacher was asked to judge their class’s level of participation in decision-making with reference to the model, giving examples and elaborating their views.

The purpose of the interview was to explore the teachers’ perceptions of the culture of pupil participation currently existing within their class and their views about the importance of children making decisions about their learning. Teachers were encouraged to elaborate on

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their views and give examples from their teaching practice. An outline of the initial interview prompts is given in Table 18.

Table 18: Outline of initial semi-structured interview prompts used with teachers Part of

interview

Planned features Introduction  Thank the teacher for agreeing to be interviewed

 Clarify that the interview is likely to take less than fifteen minutes  Check that the teacher is happy for the interview to be recorded,

reminding them that this is only to aid my memory and for accuracy in reporting any quotations

 Remind the teacher that comments will be reported anonymously Rating scales  Completion of rating scales for how much the teacher believes their

class generally participates in decision making about their learning at the moment and how much the teacher believes the children should take part in decisions about their learning

 Discussion based on an elaboration of the numbers chosen e.g. why the teacher went for those numbers and what they were thinking, giving any examples from their teaching experiences

The Tree of Participation model of pupil participation

 Explanation of the Tree of Participation model (see Figure 2), giving examples for each stage of the model and emphasising that the higher levels of participation are not hierarchical

 Teacher judgement about where they would place their own teaching practice generally, emphasising the importance of their honest views (i.e. that there are no right or wrong answers)

 Discussion based on the teacher’s responses and in relation to any curriculum activities mentioned

End  Invitation to express any concerns about the project or any questions about it or to add any further thoughts

 Thank the teacher for participating in the interview

Initial semi-structured interviews were also completed with the two teaching assistants in Classes B and C, but unfortunately these adults (and the teaching assistant in Class A) were not able to be fully part of the AI and were unavailable for interview following the intervention, so these results have not been included.

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The second semi-structured interview with the teachers, following the AI intervention, repeated the teachers’ judgements and discussion about pupil participation using the same tools (i.e. rating scales and Tree of Participation model) and then moved onto further questioning about the AI process, including seeking the teachers’ views about: what they have most appreciated and enjoyed (i.e. their ‘high points’); any improvements they would make to the process in future; the inclusion of vulnerable children and those with SEND; whether all four stages of AI are needed; and how they may use AI in future. The teachers voluntarily reflected upon these questions after their interviews and sent further thoughts via email and during follow-up meetings when the results were shared. An outline of the second semi- structured interview is given in Table 19.

Table 19: Second semi-structured interview prompts used with teachers Part of

interview

Planned features

Introduction  Thank the teacher for all they have done in the project (acknowledging all their other commitments) and for agreeing to be interviewed again

 Clarify that the interview is likely to take about twenty minutes this time

 Check that the teacher is happy for the interview to be recorded, reminding them that this is only to aid my memory and for accuracy in reporting any quotations

 Remind the teacher that comments will be reported anonymously Rating scales  Completion of rating scales for how much the teacher believes their

class generally participates in decision making about their learning now and how much the teacher believes the children should take part in decisions about their learning

 Discussion based on an elaboration of the numbers chosen, checking that any changes from their previous ratings feel right

The Tree of Participation model of pupil participation

 Teacher judgement about where they would place their own teaching now, explaining any changes in their thinking or teaching practices following the AI experience

161 Evaluation of

the AI process

Discussion based on the following evaluative questions:

 What have you most appreciated and enjoyed about the AI? What would be your ‘high points’?

 What improvements could be made to the AI process in future?  Any thoughts about the inclusion of vulnerable children and those

with SEND in the AI?

 Do you think all four stages of AI are needed?  How might you use AI in future?

 Is there anything else you think needs saying about this type of work that we haven’t covered already?

End  Thank the teacher for participating in the interview

Semi-structured interviews have a number of strengths and potential limitations, identified in Table 20.

Table 20: Strengths, potential limitations and steps taken to overcome the potential limitations of using semi-structured Interviews

Strengths of using semi- structured interviews in this study Flexible

An interview schedule covers a list of issues with potential questions, follow- up questions and probes, with the freedom to go through these in any order and to follow up points as necessary (Thomas, 2011). It can allow for historical information to be provided (Cresswell, 2009).

Targeted

Can be targeted and focused directly on case study topics (Yin, 2009). The researcher has control over the line of questioning (Cresswell, 2009).

Insightful

Provides perceived causal inferences and explanations (Yin, 2009) and can achieve greater depth (Cohen et al, 2007). Researcher has to balance control of the interview and where it is going with space for interviewee to redefine topics and generate new insights (Willig, 2008, p.24).

Personalised

Can be personalised and matched to individuals and circumstances, any individual misunderstandings can be easily clarified and additional information can be sought in response to specific ideas raised in the interview (Cohen et al, 2007).

Comprehensive

Outline of interview increases comprehensiveness of data collection for each respondent (Cohen et al, 2007).

Relaxed

Conversational and relaxed as long as the interviewer is adept at active listening and able to manage the pace and style of the encounter so that the respondent is at ease (Cohen et al, 2007).

162 Attentive

Transcribing a taped interview allows the researcher to avoid taking notes which can distract and interfere with rapport (Willig, 2008).

Accurate

Recording interviews and transcribing them allows passages to be quoted accurately. ‘I respect the power of the direct quotation to capture succinctly and vividly what could only be expressed dully and less economically in the researcher’s own words. Some statements carry a remarkably rich density of meaning in a few words’ (Ruddock, 1993, p.19).

Interpretative

Transcribing can lead to multiple interpretations of the text, may highlight points that went unnoticed during the interview, relationships and the interview process itself can be scrutinised, and can be revisited as many times as necessary (Cohen et al, 2007).

Potential limitations of using semi- structured interviews in this study and the steps taken to overcome them Honesty

It may be more difficult to achieve honest replies than an anonymous questionnaire because the interviewer is known to the teacher professionally (Cohen et al, 2007) and the interviewee may give what the interviewer wants to hear (Yin, 2009). To overcome this limitation, I emphasised to each teacher the importance of honesty in the context of confidentiality, saying that I am particularly interested in views that are very different to my own and how these might shift and change throughout the project. I have used consultation skills developed over many years as an EP to ensure that the teachers’ own views were always appreciated and validated with authenticity.

Bias

The interview is prone to subjectivity and bias on the part of the interviewer (Cohen et al, 2007; Cresswell, 2009). In order to overcome this limitation, reflexivity is crucial. I needed to be particularly vigilant about the potential for bias as I hold strong views about the value of pupil participation and my research has an emancipatory aim.

On the part of the interviewee, information about the class is filtered through the views of the teacher (Cresswell, 2009). This potential limitation is reduced by the triangulation of evidence, where my observations and the children’s own responses also form part of the information gained about each class. Comparability

Flexibility in the way questions are phrased can reduce comparability of responses (Cohen et al, 2007). Also, not everyone is equally articulate and perceptive (Cresswell, 2009). Using the same measures in each interview (i.e. the rating scales and the Tree of Participation model to structure the conversations) helps in enabling comparisons to be made between the three cases.

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Successful interviewing depends on the interpersonal skills of the interviewer, for example their ability to listen and use prompts to deepen responses (Cohen et al, 2007) and to articulate questions clearly (Yin, 2009). It also depends on developing and maintaining rapport between the interviewer and interviewee e.g. balancing how much to reveal about self (as researcher) with what the interviewee is revealing (Willig, 2008). I am aware of and have developed these skills throughout my work as an EP.

Inaccuracy

Inaccuracies can be due to poor recall (Yin, 2009). But recording only helps with the words, not the non-verbal aspects of the interview (Cohen et al, 2007). Transcripts are ‘decontextualised’ and will not be a true account of the interaction, nuances can be misinterpreted when read out of context and the researcher is likely to need to listen to the tape again and to take notes (Cohen et al, 2007). Information may be taken at face value instead of working out what someone might have meant by what they said and how they said it; the interviewer mustn’t assume the interviewees words are ‘simple and direct reflections of their thoughts and feelings’ (Willig, 2008, p.23). To overcome this limitation I have recorded the interviews and listened to them again even though I have accurate transcripts for reference. I have also kept my own notes during and immediately following each interview.

Integrity/ethics

It is important not to ‘abuse the informal ambience of the interview to encourage the interviewee to reveal more than they may feel comfortable with after the event’ (Willig, 2008, p.25). I have acted with professional integrity in this regard and, as promised at the beginning of the study, I have not shared information concerning the beliefs or actions within the classroom of any of the teachers with their head teachers or with other staff at either of the schools. Openness/flexibility

If only the topic headings are used to formulate questions in a less open way (more directive), potentially important information may be missed (Willig, 2008). To avoid this limitation, the questions devised for the interviews in this study have been constructed and delivered in an open and enquiring manner.