Serial (sequential) versus parallel (simultaneous) search. A visitor may pay attention

to one exhibit element after another in some type of logical order (serial or sequential search), or look at the whole complex of an exhibit and wait for something salient to “pop out” of the complex (parallel or simultaneous search). The search pattern is likely to be deter- mined by the layout or organization of the exhibit elements. If there is a clear sequence or order from one element to another, sequential search is likely to occur. If the search pattern is not obvious, a simultaneous search is likely to occur. If the search is sequential, then each exhibit element is likely to have a chance to capture attention; but, if a simultaneous search occurs, attention to exhibit elements is likely to be irregular and spotty, with attention focused on only one or two elements.

2. Within-exhibit search pattern. The type of exhibit element influences search patterns (i.e., 3-D objects capture attention first, then photos and illustrations, and finally blocks of interpretive text) and learned habits or patterns of responding such as reading.

3. Between-exhibits search pattern. Switching attention from one exhibit display to another may depend upon a number of factors, includ- ing the perceived value of the alternatives available (“Why waste my time on this one when there is a more attractive one next to it?”). The physical relationship or distance between exhibit displays may also play a role—the closer they are together, the more likely there is to be a shift in attention. Sight lines from the approach location, etc., are also important.

A pathway through an exhibition that contains exhibits on both sides cre- ates additional problems in managing attention. Especially in crowded condi- tions, visitors often do not move from one side to the other of a wide pathway (e.g., Bitgood, 2006). One-sided viewing is a common pattern, perhaps because it conserves steps and is a way to avoid encountering oncoming crowds.

The intended sequence, both within an exhibit display and between exhibits, should be made explicit;

otherwise, there is a strong possibility of vis- itors misinterpreting how they should distribute their attention as they move through the exhibition.

Nonsystematic sequences of viewing exhibits often results in unintentionally missing exhibit elements and a failure to understand ideas that logically build from one exhibit element to another.

Decision-making Processes

Choice strongly characterizes visitor behavior within an exhibition. Visitors choose to stop or not stop at an exhibit, to examine it carefully or not, and to

read interpretative materials or not. The economic concept of value provides a useful way to examine these choices.

1. The value ratio. The attention-value model asserts that the major moti- vation of paying attention to an exhibit is determined by the ratio of util- ity (benefits, satisfaction) divided by costs (time, effort) derived from the experience of engaging with an exhibit display or element. Chapters 6 through 8 provide evidence for the power of the value ratio in engaging attention.

2. Utility refers to the perceived or real benefit and/or satisfaction obtained by viewing or engaging with the exhibit. Utility may be predicted by the following:

a. Interest level. Self-reported interest level may be one of the most important indicators of perceived benefit or utility.

b. Preknowledge. Preknowledge is generally associated with interest level and ease of comprehension (workload).

c.Agenda. The concept of “agenda” is one with much surplus mean- ing. It seems to include a combination of general factors (plan of how the visit will take place), other person factors from what visitors bring to their visit, and factors related to a specific visit (e.g., time budget, group goals). Nevertheless, previsit agendas are an important aspect of the satisfaction and benefits derived from a museum visit.

3. Cost encompasses the time, effort, or other possible resources such as money that are necessary to

“consume” the product (engage with the exhibit).

Chapters 6 through 8 examine how cost (text passage length or film duration) influences engaged attention.

4. Available-alternatives theorem. The value of viewing a particular exhibit element is not absolute: it varies depending on the alternatives available at any moment. A visitor is likely to give attention to a moder- ately interesting object if it is the only object available to view. When addi- tional, more attractive objects are available, the visitor will decrease atten-tion to the original object. Of course, an important

element of value is the cost; if the cost in terms of time and effort are substantially different for one object versus another, then the value and thus attention to these objects will be affected. This theorem explains why an object that is physi- cally isolated from others receives more attention: there is no competi- tion from which to choose. It also partially explains the film choice para- dox described later in Chapter 6. Although people routinely sit through a two-hour movie at a cinema, they rarely spend more than a few minutes viewing film contained within an exhibition. In an exhibition, films are in

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competition with other attractive exhibit elements to view, and visitors are reluctant to invest a long time period to view a film when there are lower-cost exhibit element alternatives available.

5. Small-cost theorem. People tend to choose a low-cost alternative that may have a lower benefit over a higher-cost alternative with a higher benefit.

Chapter 6 reports on a study in which respondents made choices between sets of two films, one always rated lower quality but of shorter duration, and the other rated higher quality but of longer duration.

When the films were short (5 to 10 minutes), the higher-quality (and longer) film was chosen about 80 percent of the time. However, when the films were longer (40 to 80 minutes), the choices were reversed:

the lower-quality, shorter 40-minute film was the overwhelming choice. Chapter 7 systematically replicates the findings of Chapter 6 in a study of engaged reading of text passages rather than film choices. These studies suggest that people may be more sensitive to the cost than to the benefits of available choices, all other factors being equal. If this finding holds up under future research, it provides further support for the notion that it is better to offer several low-cost, small-benefit choices than one high-cost choice with high benefit/utility.

Another example of the small cost theorem comes from one of my stud- ies with Don Patterson (Bitgood &

Patterson, 1993), in which an interpretive label of 150 words was divided into three labels of 50 words each.

The percent- age of readers more than doubled with the shorter labels. The workload of 50 words seems to encourage more persistent reading than the one of 150 words.

Physical and Mental States

There are several temporary states that either increase or decrease attention level (Bitgood, 2009a, 2009b, 2009c), probably by influencing the level of both utility

Overview of the Attention-Value Model ◁ 7 and costs. The focus is often on those that decrease6 attention (fatigue, satiation), but there are other temporary states that increase the level of attention (curiosity, excitement). There seems to be very little research that explicitly examines the states that increase attention levels.¹ Curiosity and excitement about the content area are often mentioned as important to the visitor experience (e.g., Rounds, 2004), but have not been systematically studied objectively in museums as an independent variable (i.e., one that influences behavior outcomes). These are areas worthy of additional research. Physical and mental states include:

1. Energy level. People’s energy level varies considerably depending upon amount of sleep, stress, illness, age, and so forth. When visitors have low

energy levels (for whatever reason), they are likely to pay attention to exhibits at a lower level than otherwise might be found. A distinction should be made between acute and chronic low energy.

Museums can often reduce acute problems by designing the visitor experience. Chronic conditions require medical intervention.

2. Fatigue. Both physical and mental acute fatigue are possible during a museum visit. The concern here is for acute fatigue resulting from pro- longed physical and/or mental exertion occurring during the museum visit. If the total time of the visit is long, physical fatigue is likely to occur. If the content of an exhibition is difficult to understand or is burdened with excessive information, mental fatigue may occur.

3. Object satiation. Object satiation occurs when a normally desirable experience is too homogenous or repetitive in its nature. You may enjoy viewing the vast variety of seashells found in the sea, but, after viewing many of similar size, shape, color, and texture, you are likely to become satiated (at least for a short time).

4. Positive emotional states. While fatigue, energy level, and satiation are phenomena that decrease the level of attention to exhibits, there are other states that increase attention. Visitor curiosity and excitement are two emotional states that museums often attempt to stimulate. Emotional states are a product of both what visitors bring to the museum (personal variables) and the on-site experience with exhibitions and programs (set- ting variables).

Physical and mental states appear to influence value:

for example, when you have a low energy level, the perceived cost is higher than when you have a high energy level. In one of my studies with Renee Burt and Stephanie Dukes (Bitgood, Burt, & Dukes, 2010), we found that energy level ratings during the task correlated with the proportion of a text passage read.

Strategies and learned Behavior Patterns

In addition to the psychological processes associated with detection, value, searching, and temporary states, there are strategies and learned behavior pat- terns that have an impact on visitor attention.

1. Reading habits. The pattern of starting to read the top paragraph on a page, then reading the one below in an top-to-bottom sequence seems to transfer to exhibit viewing (Bitgood & New, 2012).

There is also the habit of starting at the left and moving to the right.

2. Walking norms. In the United States and many other countries, peo- ple tend to walk on the right side of a pathway, while countries that drive

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on the left side apparently have a weaker tendency for this cultural norm. Walking on the right side of a pathway is likely to result in more attention to exhibit displays on the right side than to those on the left side. depending on time budget, group composition, etc.

Agendas also change as visitors encounter the museum setting. museum store, but for other families skipping the store to save money is part of their routine.

1. Persistence. Humans appear to have a strong tendency to persist at a task under certain conditions.

Eisenberger (1985) reviewed the literature that showed when people are rewarded for effortful behavior, it general- izes to other behaviors; he called this “learned industriousness.”

2. Chapters 9 and 10 report two studies that demonstrated people will read a larger proportion of a text passage if they were first instructed to describe or compare artworks before seeing the text passage. Chapter 11 reviews the use of handouts or guides in museums as a way to prompt more persistent attention to exhibit objects and interpretive information.

Overview of the Attention-Value Model ◁ 8