Shape of teeth

Maximum length and width measurements were taken for each of the foraminiferal teeth counted above. The optimal model with length of teeth as the dependant variable consisted of a three-way interaction (CO2 x Temperature Regime x Week: L-

ratio = 17.873, d.f. = 3, p = 0.0005). Under the constant temperature regime, there was an increased CO2 effect with time (Fig. 6.6a). After 24 weeks of exposure the

length of teeth were reduced under the highest CO2 treatment (1000 ppm). Under

the ambient temperature regime, a CO2 effect was also observed with time (Fig.

6.6b). Under ambient conditions, teeth length was reduced under the highest CO2

treatment at every time point. The CO2 effect under ambient temperatures appears

Figure 6.6 Model visualisation of three-way interaction (CO2 x Temperature Regime x Week) on length of teeth on H. germanica

specimens (y-axis) across each CO2 treatment at each time point (week 4, 24, 36,64). A) Constant temperature regime, B) Ambient

temperature regime. The visualisation shows time point along the x-axis. The different CO2 treatments are represented by circles

(380 ppm) and triangles (1000 ppm). Cha p te r 6 – Fun cti o n a l Morp h o lo g y 168

169 The optimal model with width of teeth as the dependant variable consisted of two two-way interactions (CO2 x Week: L-ratio = 18.986, d.f. = 3, p < 0.0005,

Temperature x Week: L-ratio = 13.848, d.f. = 3, p < 0.005). An increased CO2 effect

was observed with increased length of exposure to experimental conditions (Fig. 6.7). After 24 weeks of exposure the teeth width was lowest in the highest CO2

treatment (1000 ppm). The width of the teeth remained lowest in the highest CO2

treatment for the experimental duration and continued to reduce over time.

Figure 6.7 Model visualisation of the two-way interaction (CO2 x Week) on width of

teeth on H. germanica specimens (y-axis) across the two CO2 treatments for each

time point (week 4, 24, 36, 64). The visualisation shows the time point (week) along the x-axis. The different CO2 treatments are represented by circles (380 ppm) and

Chapter 6 – Functional Morphology

170 The maximum width of teeth also fluctuated with temperature regime over time (Fig. 6.8). An increased temperature effect on the width of teeth was observed at week 36. At this time point the largest teeth width is found under ambient temperature conditions. After 64 weeks of exposure the maximum width of teeth was observed under the constant temperature regime.

Figure 6.8 Model visualisation of the two-way interaction (Temperature Regime x Length of Exposure) on width of teeth on H. germanica specimens (y-axis). The visualisation shows the time point (week) along the x-axis (4, 24, 36 & 64). The different temperature regimes are represented by circles (constant) and triangles (ambient).

171

6.4. Discussion

The results from this study demonstrate that ocean acidification has a significant effect on the nature of ornamentation in the species Haynesina germanica. Test ornamentation of functional importance revealed sensitivity to decreasing seawater pH. Observations of the test surface allowed identification of shell dissolution (Fig. 6.3).

Under ambient CO2conditions (380 ppm), the test surface of H. germanica is smooth

with the primary openings along the base of the apertural face being obscured externally by teeth. Foraminifera maintained at ambient CO2 levels had tubercles

and teeth that were numerous and very well developed in both the apertural and umbilical regions. They were typically conical in shape, rimming both the apertural face and chamber margins (Banner & Culver, 1978). The tubercles were often arranged in rows, radiating from the primary aperture. The ornamentation rimming the apertural margin extended up the apertural face to approximately one-third of its height (as described by Banner & Culver, 1978).

Many individuals maintained under ambient CO2 conditions (380 ppm) had discarded

diatoms on the test surface. The patterns of fracturing and distinctive signatures in the discarded diatom frustules described by Austin et al. (2005) were observed in a number of diatom specimens (Fig 6.9). As described by Travis and Bowser (1991) and recorded by Austin et al., 2005, the frustules mostly displayed splits along the raphe from near the mid-point towards one of the poles. In many instances part of the valve wall had been completely removed (Travis & Bowser, 1991; Austin et al,, 2005). Diatom frustules were rarely observed on specimens maintained under the highest CO2 conditions (1000 ppm). It is unclear from the images alone whether the

Chapter 6 – Functional Morphology

172 foraminiferal specimens in this treatment had stopped feeding or if they were feeding on an alternative food source.

Figure 6.9 Scanning Electron Micrographs of characteristic fracturing pattern in discarded diatom frustules following foraminiferal feeding. (A) Diatom frustule (Cocconeis spp.) discarded adjacent to apertural region of Haynesina germanica specimen. (B) Detail of damage and cracking to empty diatom frustule following foraminiferal feeding.

At higher CO2 levels, the functional ornamentation of the apertural area was vastly

reduced. In some cases, the extent to which the apertural and umbilical features were dissolved or damaged made the foraminifera almost unrecognizable as H. germanica (e.g. Fig 6.3E). Both CO2 treatment and length of exposure had

significant independent effects on the number of teeth that were present in the apertural regions. Individuals suffered from dissolution under the highest CO2

treatment (1000 ppm) with specimens having fewer teeth when compared to those maintained under ambient CO2 conditions (380 ppm). The number of teeth present

on specimens in the highest CO2 treatment (1000 ppm) continued to decline with

increased exposure time to the experimental conditions. Given the exposure of surface ornamentation, it ought to be particularly prone to dissolution (e.g. Kucera,

173 2007). This was evident in specimens maintained under the highest CO2 treatment

with foraminifera seemly unable to maintain these important calcified structures. There were significant interaction effects (Length: CO2 X Week x Temperature

Regime, Width: CO2 x week and Temperature Regime x Week) on the size and

shape of teeth present on each of the specimens. The CO2 effect on both the length

and width of teeth increased with length of exposure to the experimental conditions. The CO2 effect on the length and width of the teeth was stronger under the constant

(10°C) temperature regime and was more pronounced following 24 weeks of exposure. The temperature effect on the width of teeth at week 36 corresponds to an increase in temperatures at weeks 24 (15.2°C) and 36 (13.4°C) under seasonally varying ambient conditions. It is only at these high levels that a temperature effect is observed in the data. This effect breaks down by week 64 when temperatures are reduced.

Although this species of intertidal foraminifera is likely to be adapted to short term fluctuations in pH, it is probably unable to maintain functionally important ornamentation when exposed to the long-term effects of ocean acidification. After just 4 weeks of experimental exposure, the number size and shape of the foraminiferal teeth were reduced at higher CO2 levels. This reduction becomes more

pronounced the longer they are exposed to higher CO2 levels with specimens

exhibiting fewer and smaller calcified structures.

Morphological changes are species-specific (Boltovskoy et al., 1991). Initial observations suggest that species other than H. germanica may also be impacted by ocean acidification. The main focus for this chapter was H. germanica as they were present in high enough numbers to allow for statistical comparisons between

Chapter 6 – Functional Morphology

174 treatments. Preliminary observations reveal that live Elphidium williamsoni also exhibit similar effects in their surface ornamentation in response to ocean acidification. There appears to be test dissolution and a reduction in the number of denticals in specimens incubated at higher CO2 levels (Fig. 6.10).

Figure 6.10 Scanning Electron Micrographs images of Elphidium williamsoni. Images of A & D show whole specimen, with images B-C and E-F displaying the surface ornamentation, including detail of the fossettes. Specimen A (ornamentation: B & C) was incubated in the 380 ppm CO2 treatment. Specimen D (ornamentation: E

& F) was incubated in the highest CO2 treatment (1000 ppm). Scale bars: A) 100 µm,

B) 10 µm, C) 1 µm, D) 100 µm, E) 10 µm and F) 10 µm.

Test ornamentation, notably around the apertural area, is crucial for feeding and chloroplast acquisition (Bernhard & Bowser, 1991; Austin et al., 2005). Dissolution of

A

D

B C

175 these features at anticipated future levels of atmospheric CO2 will therefore have a

direct negative impact on the long-term fitness and survival of these organisms through a reduction in feeding efficiency. The potential for deformation, dissolution and in some cases absence of these functionally important feeding structures, may result in a shift in competitive advantage towards non-calcifiers in the benthic foraminiferal community under conditions of enhanced ocean acidification. This shift in community structure is likely to be further enhanced as a result of weakened tests under high-CO2 scenarios, making calcifying foraminifera such as H. germanica

more vulnerable to predators. Such shifts in community structure will have significant knock-on effects for trophic dynamics, carbon cycling and ecosystem productivity.