Amor can be first singular present indicative passive of amō, as above, or nominative and vocative singular of amor, amōris love; such a

coincidence does not occur elsewhere.

3 For the forms of the above passive tenses in the second person singular there is a less common alternative in -re (for -ris), e.g. amāre (= amāris), monēbere (= monēberis); in the present tense these alternative forms coincide with the present infinitive active (and also with the imperative passive (see Unit 21).

2 pErFECT, pLupErFECT, anD FuTurE pErFECT passIVE (sEE appEnDIx 1)

These tenses of the passive are not made by varying the endings of the corresponding active forms. They are all composite tenses consisting of the perfect participle and a part of the verb sum. The elements are written separately, just as composite tenses in English. The tense of sum employed is different from that of the verb to be in English and can cause confusion:

The perfect indicative passive requires the present indicative of sum, e.g. amātus sum I have been loved or I was loved, not I am (being) loved which is amor.

The pluperfect indicative passive requires the imperfect indicative of sum, e.g. amātus eram I had been loved, not I was loved which is amatus sum.

The future perfect indicative passive requires the future of sum, e.g.

amātus erō I shall have been loved, not I shall be loved which is amābor.

For the perfect and pluperfect subjunctive passive we simply substitute the subjunctive of sum for the indicative, e.g. amātus sim, amātus essem. There is no future perfect subjunctive passive.

As the perfect participle is declinable and, in composite tenses, qualifies the subject, it must agree with the subject in number, gender, and case.

Amātus sum, amātus es, amātus est can only be used if the subject is masculine (and singular); if the subject is feminine singular we must have amāta sum, amāta es, amāta est, and if neuter singular, amātum est, etc. The same applies in the plural and a distinction is made that is not possible in English. Amāti sunt means they (masculine) have been loved, amātae sunt they (feminine) have been loved. When, however, a mixed group is referred to, the masculine form of the participle is used.

3 InFInITIVEs

So far we have had only the present infinitive active (Unit 2) and perfect infinitive active (Unit 13). Latin has passive infinitives for both these tenses as well as a future infinitive active and a future infinitive passive. The present infinitive passive is formed by adding -rī to the present stem in the first, second, and fourth conjugations, and -ī to the present stem in the third:

I amārī to be loved III régī to be ruled

II monērī to be warned IV audīrī to be heard The perfect infinitive passive is formed, like the perfect indicative passive, from the perfect participle and the appropriate part of sum, viz the present infinitive:

I amātus

ésse to have been loved III réctus

ésse to have been The perfect participle must agree with the subject of the infinitive as we shall see when treating the construction where this infinitive is most commonly used (see Unit 17). The same applies to the future participle, which joins with esse to form the future infinitive active:

I amātūrus

As the future participle of sum is futūrus (see Unit 11), its future infinitive is futūrus esse to be going to be. Sum, however, has another future infinitive, fore (the only single-word future infinitive in Latin); there is no distinction in meaning between the two. As one would expect, sum has no passive infinitives.

The future infinitive passive consists of the supine in -um and the present infinitive passive of eō (see Unit 15): amātum īrī to be going to be loved.

As it is the supine, not a participle, that is used in this infinitive, there is no agreement with the subject. This infinitive is rare in all periods of Latin.

4 DEponEnT VErBs

A linguistic phenomenon for which we have no parallel in English is the deponent verb. These verbs, which occur in all four conjugations, have the peculiarity of being passive in form but active in meaning. Except for the five forms noted below, they are not conjugated in the active voice.

A wholly satisfactory explanation for this bizarre phenomenon has yet to be discovered, but some deponents are among the most common verbs in Latin. Deponent verbs also occur in ancient (and modern) Greek. Tūtor (tūtārī), a regular deponent verb of the first conjugation, means I protect.

The Latin, therefore, for I will protect is tūtābor, for I was protecting is tūtābar, for I protected is tūtātus sum. Other examples are:

Inter sē adversīs luctantur cornibus haedī. Young goats struggle (luctor, luctārī) with each other with opposing horns.

quod rectum et honestum et cum virtūte est, id sōlum opīnor bonum. What is proper, honourable, and virtuous (lit. with virtue), that alone I consider (opīnor, opīnārī) good.

quācumque incessērunt, lātē populātī sunt tecta agrōsque.

Wherever they went, they pillaged (populor, populārī) buildings and fields over a wide area (lātē lit. broadly).

Numquam omnēs hodiē moriēmur inultī. Never today shall we all die (morior, morī) unavenged.

Deponents can be transitive (opīnor, populor) or intransitive (luctor, morior). Transitive deponents can take a direct object, but there is no

way we can turn id sōlum opīnor bonum around so that the verb is passive in sense (that alone is considered good by me) since we have no special endings to give deponents a passive meaning. They can only be used in an active sense; and if we want to say that alone is considered good by me in Latin, we must use a normal verb which has the same meaning as opīnor (e.g. putō). There are, however, four active forms of a normal verb which have no corresponding passive, viz present participle, future participle, supine, and gerund. Each of these, though active in form, can also be formed from deponents, which would otherwise be deprived of these important parts. From opīnor we have opīnans present participle thinking; opīnātūrus future participle going to think; opinatum supine (act of) thinking; and, a part of the Latin verbal system we have not yet treated, the gerund opinandum (for its meaning see Unit 18). Also, for the future infinitive we have, somewhat illogically, opinaturus esse to be going to think, which is active in form; since normal verbs do have a future passive infinitive (see last subsection), we might have expected opīnātum īrī but this never occurs. Gerundives (another verbal form not yet treated) of deponents behave in the same way as those of normal verbs (see Unit 18).

The perfect participle of deponents warrants special attention because, although passive in form, it is active in meaning and so provides something lacking in normal verbs, a perfect participle active, e.g.

opīnātus having thought, populātus having ravaged. We do not, however, have any form of these verbs with the passive meaning having been thought, having been ravaged.

The deponents used in the following examples will be found in the subsequent list:

Vulcānus ea verba locūtus optātōs dedit amplexūs. Having spoken these words Vulcan gave the desired embraces.

P. Sulpicius, profectus ab urbe, Brundisium vēnit. Publius Sulpicius, having set out from the city, came to Brundisium.

Dictātor absentem M. Valerium Corvum, trēs et vīgintī annōs nātum, consulem renuntiāvit. The dictator declared the absent twenty-three-year-old (lit. born three and twenty years) Marcus Valerius Corvus consul.

Very often the perfect participle of deponents is used with a present sense:

Caesar insidiās veritus exercitum equitātumque in castrīs continuit. Caesar, fearing (we might have expected verens) an ambush, kept the army and cavalry in the camp.

The principal parts of deponents are given thus: tūtor, tūtārī, tūtātus sum. The supine (which here is tūtātum) is not cited because its stem is the same as that of the perfect participle (see Unit 11), which we know from tūtātus sum.

Among the most frequently used deponents are:

First conjugation (and regular)

arbitror, arbitrārī, arbitrātus sum consider, judge

cōnor, cōnārī, cōnātus sum try

cunctor, cunctārī, cunctātus sum delay

opīnor, opīnārī, opīnātus sum consider, suppose populor, populārī, populātus sum ravage

second conjugation

fateor, fatērī, fassus sum confess

reor, rērī, ratus sum think

Third conjugation

loquor, loquī, locūtus sum speak

nascor, nascī, nātus sum be born

proficiscor, proficiscī, profectus sum set out

sequor, sequī, secūtus sum follow

Mixed conjugation (see unit 7)

ēgredior, ēgredī, ēgressus sum go out ingredior, ingredī, ingressus sum go into

morior, morī, mortuus sum die

patior, patī, passus sum suffer, allow prōgredior, prōgredī, prōgressus sum advance Fourth conjugation

experior, experīrī, expertus sum try

orior, orīrī, ortus sum arise

As examples of deponents, cōnor and patior are conjugated in Appendix 3. Note that the imperfect subjunctive (cōnarer, paterer, etc.) is formed from a hypothetical present infinitive active cōnāre, patere. With a second conjugation deponent, e.g. fateor, the imperfect subjunctive is fatērer, and from the fourth conjugation experior has experīrer.

InsIght

Present-day politicians are often embarrassed by a statement they made years before.

Horace’s advice is always pertinent: nescit vox missa revertī a word (once) released knows not how to return (revertī is a present passive infinitive; see Unit 14). On Horace see Unit 12.

Latin reading

1 Partem suarum copiarum traducere coacti sunt.

2 Duos qui sequitur lepores, neutrum capit.

3 Ut Romae consules, sic Karthagine quotannis bini reges creabantur.

4 Parturiunt montes, nascetur ridiculus mus.

5 Tempora mutantur, nos et mutamur in illis.

6 quem di diligunt, adulescens moritur.

7 Felices sequeris, Mors, miseros fugis.

8 Nascentes morimur, finisque ab origine pendet.

9 Curae leves loquuntur, ingentes stupent.

10 Augescunt aliae gentes, aliae minuuntur.

11 Nec amor nec tussis celatur.

12 Fortuna, cum blanditur, captatum venit.

13 Ex auribus cognoscitur asinus.

14 Legati se ad pedes Caesaris proiecerunt suppliciterque locuti