C The goal of needs analysis is to collect information that can be used to de- p velop a profile offfie^airgrrage-Tie^ds-of-ar^ in order~to~be
C aBTe" to make' decisions about the goals anoTc^7ftenr"ofTTalig^^
However, other factors apart from learner needs are reTevanTto-th-e--design and implementation of successful language programs. Language programs are carried out in particular contexts or situations. Clark (1987, xii) comments:
A language curriculum is a function of the interrelationships that hold between subject-specific concerns and other broader factors embracing socio-political and philosophical matters, educational value systems, theory and practice in curriculum design, teacher experiential wisdom and learner motivation. In order to understand the foreign language curriculum in any particular context it is therefore necessary to attempt to understand bow all the various influences interrelate to give a particular shape to the planning and execution of the teaching/learning process.'
The contexts .for language programs are diverse and mejiart^ljxjauiab-Ies that come into play in a speciflclituation are often the key determinants of thTsu'ccess:"6f afffbgranTSome language cumcufa'areplanned foTceHtrally organized state school systems where a great deal of direction and support for teaching is provided. Others take place in settings where there are lim ited human and physical resources. Some proposals for curriculum change are well received by teachers, but others may be resisted. In some situations, teachers are well trained and have time available to plan their own lesson materials'. In other situations, teachers may have little time for lesson plan ning and materials production and simply teach from their textbooks. Each_ context for a curriculum change or innovation thus contains factors that can potentially facilitate the change or hinder its successful implementation (MaTK"eeT9V I). It islmportant, therefore, tolde^tifjTv^iat tfiesePfactors are a^d'whaT theirpotejitijaTeffects might be when planning a^curricuTurh change (Bean 1993). Pra^U19l$(UTTjoD^en^---'--- The designer should estimate both the direct and indirect effects a proposed curriculum will have on the students, on other programs, and on other people in
Situation analysis 91
and outside the institution. These effects must be taken into account in the design and made clear to decision-makers when die curriculum proposal is submitted. This is the focus of situation analysis. Situation analysis is an analysis of factors in the context of a planned or present curriculum project that is made"" Tnj5n3^
be political, social, economic, or institutional. Situation analysis comple^" memSTfaeinftormadoTTgatnerea during n^edTanalysis. It is sometimes'cljrP sidered as a dimension of needs analysis, and can_als.o3e_regarded as an as- pect of evaluation (seePUhapter y).
Some exaTrfpfes of language teaching changes that were attempted with- out an adequate analysis of the context of the innovation will clarify the im- portance" of situation analysis in curriculum planning.
Example 1: A team of foreign experts under contract to an international
funding body is given a contract to write a new series of English textbooks for the state school system in an EFL country. They base themselves in an attractive small town in a rural setting and set up their writing project. They do a series of interviews with educational officials and teachers to deter mine students' language needs and make use of the latest thinking on lan guage teaching and textbook design to produce an oral-based language course that reflects me recommended language teaching methodology of the time - Audiolingualism. Textbooks are developed and provided to sec ondary schools at no cost and teachers are given the choice of using the new books or their old outdated government textbooks. After a period of initial
enthusiasm, however, very few teachers end up using the new course and ,
:
most reve.rx.to using the old government-provided textbooks.
-, -
^Comment^hQ project team members spent insufficient time familiariz-
ing themselves with the local school situation. Most English teachers had a limited command of English. Teachers found the new materials difficult to teach because they required a high level of oral fluency in English and an English-only methodology that was difficult to implement in large classes. A more successful reception might have occurred if the introduction of me new materials had been gradual, so that problems were addressed as they occurred. In addition, mere could have been more provision for teacher training.
Example 2: The education department in an EFL country decides to intro-
duce English from me third year of elementary school ramer than in high school. New textbooks are required. A group of teachers is seconded from schools to join a curriculum unit in die ministry to produce the books for the next school year. There is an element of secrecy in the work of the unit
and few people have an opportunity to review the materials before they are published. When the books are published, they receive many complaints from teachers. They are found to be difficult to teach, they contain too much material, and they are prepared to poor standards of design and production.
Comment: Several factors had not been addressed in planning the project.
None of the members of the writing team had experience or training in writing elementary language teaching materials. More consultation with classroom teachers should have been provided, as well as pilot testing of the' materials. In addition, there was an unrealistic budget for design and pro- duction. And the time framework the writers were working with did not al- low for adequate development and review of the materials.
Example 3: A large private university of an EFL country decides that, rather
than use commercial materials in its language institute, it will produce its own materials and publish them. It is hoped that they will compete on the market with materials produced by commercial publishers. A large amount of money is invested in setting up a materials writing team and the books are prepared. When they are finally published, however, it is found that few other institutes or schools want to use them.
Comment: Private universities in this country are highly competitive, and
the fact that the materials were produced by one institution meant that other institutions did not want to use them. Some basic market research should have been carried out at the initial stages of the project to determine if there would be a commercial market for the materials.
These examples illustrate the kinds of factors that can have an impact on the success cTacurriculum project and emphasize the importarJcTof detenfltcr-ing the potential influence of sucElactorsonthelmplementation ofa~cur-■ V i Jiculum[chj^
Xy*, X fectorejjnstia^jaal^^
4 <X. '' fetors. (Some of these factors will be considered further in later chapters S* Aare*at*ont0 *ssues of teaching, methodology, and materials design.) Analy-
,. V)\ \§P sis and appraisal of the potential impact of these factors at the initial stages of a curriculum project can help determine the kinds of difficulties that might be encountered in implementing a curriculum change. Procedures used in situation analysis are similar to those mvolvedJn_negds analysis, namely, (a) consultation witETepresentatives of as many relevant groups as
possibTe7~suebras^are"ntsrs^ govem-
rnmtoHcialsT7^), stodyanS"an^ysi?oFrelOTant documents, s^^_as_course~
appraisal documents, government reports, minis^_of_eJucatign guidelines^ and' irolicy'plip^rSjjjeac^^
Situation analysis 93
tion of teachers and students in relevant learning settings; (d) surveys of opinions of relevant parties; (e) review of available literatul£VelateTt olh'e~"
issue. ™ ~ ~ ~ ' ' ' -
Second or foreign language teaching is a fact of life in almost every coun- try in the world. Yet countries differ greatly in terms of the role of foreign languages in the community, their status in the curriculum, educational tra- ditions and experience in language teaching, and the expectations that mem- bers of the community have for language teaching and learning. Van Els, T. Bongaerts, G. Extra, C. Van Os, and A. Janssen-van Dieten (1984,156), for example, comparing foreign language teaching experience in Holland and the United States, point out that the circu_mstan.cg.s_ . of foreign langua ge teaching are completely different in both countries. InJHolIand, a command oTohTor more foreign languages has long been accepted as a necessity. Schools are expected to offer a range of foreign languages, and there is both a strong tradition and considerable expertise in foreign language teaching. New proposals are therefore met with informed skepticism. In the United States, by comparison, there is much less collective wisdom or experience in foreign language teaching. The position of foreign languages in the school curriculum is neither strong nor secure. More promotion of foreign language teaching is consequently needed, and there is a greater interest in novel teaching methods. Inexamjning the impact of soctgtal factors on lan- guagete^chmg^thereforejjhe aim is to determine the impact of groups,in the community or society at large oruheprogtam/These groups include: / • policy makers in government
\ • educational and other government officials
\ • employers ) • the business community
") • politicians
/ - tertiary education specialists / • educational organizations I • parents \ ' citizens
\ • students
In the case of projects of community or national scope, questions such as the following may be relevant:
• What current language teaching policies exist and how are they viewed? • What are the underlying reasons for the project and who supports it? • What impact will it have on different sectors of society?
• What language teaching experience and traditions exist in the country? • How do members of the public view second languages and second lan-
guage teaching?
• What are the views of relevant professionals such as academics and teacher trainers?
• What do professional organizations such as teachers' unions think of the project?
• What are the views of parents and students?
• What are the views of employers and the business community?
• What community resources are available to support the innovations, such as radio, television, and the media?
The following examples illustrate die impact of societal factors on language curriculum projects.
Example 2: A new English curriculum has been prepared for English at sec-
ondary level in an EFL context. The new curriculum is described as a com- municative curriculum and downplays the importance of grammar, which traditionally received a strong focus in the English curriculum. When text- books to support the new curriculum are published, concerns are expressed by parents and parents' groups because they feel that their children "are not being taught the basics" and the textbooks will not provide sufficient prepa- ration for school exams.
Comment: Mechanisms should have been established for communicat-
ing the intentions of the new curriculum to parents and other interested par- ties and to identify and address their concerns. Perhaps parents misunder- stood the way grammar was addressed in the new cumculum and would be satisfied once they understood better how the program worked. In addition, the textbooks should be reviewed to ensure that they address the skills cov- ered in me exams.
Example 2: In an EFL country, a new 6-year English course is developed for
secondary schools. The course seeks to prepare students both for employ- ment and for entry to English-medium universities. The course is based on an integrated-skills syllabus that was prepared by a group of consultants and materials writers and is carefully reviewed by teachers before it is published. After the course has been in use for two years, however, employers complain that school leavers have insufficient language skills for work purposes.
Situation analysis 95 Comment: The course was largely planned around the needs of stu-
dents going on to university studies. The needs of learners going to voca- tional schools or into the employment sector should also have been considered. Employers should have been consulted during the planning stage to find out what language skills they felt school leavers should have. The course could then have been examined to see if these skills were adequately covered.
.Project factors
Curriculum projects are typically produced by a team of people. Members of the team may be specialists who are hired specifically for the purpose, they may be classroom teachers who are seconded to the project for a fixed period of time, or the project may be carried out by teachers and other staff of a teaching institution as part of their regular duties. Projects are com- Dieted under-djfferenLconstraints of time, resources, and personnel, and each of these variables can have a significant impact on a project.. There should be sufficient i^ember^^ do the job and they should represent a balance p.fjkills.an.d.expextise.JSome projects are gener ously resourced while others operate on a shoestring budget. The time frame for a project needs to be carefully planned. If a curriculum development team takes on too ambitious a task for die time available, the quality of their efforts may be compromised. The working dynamics of the team are also essential to the smooch progress of the project. If the team members are hj.gMY-^comrratted-toJhe..project and., share a common vision, it is likely to ■
encounter fewer difficulties than one where the project team experiences m-
tenwife^£^d^p^^r^truggle.s._ '—
■
The following project factors need to be considered;
• Who constitu tes the project group and how are.they selected? • What are thTmaj^ement and other responsibilities of the team? • How are goals and procedures determined?
• Who reviews me progress bflKeproj^cTand'the performance of its mem- bers?
• What experience do members of the team have? • How do members of the team regard each other?
• What.respurces do they have available and what budget to acquire needed resources?™
- What is the time frame of the project? Is it realistic, or is more or less time needed?
The following examples illustrate how these kinds of'factors can affect curriculum planning;
Example 2: A private institute decides to develop a set of course materials
for some of its major courses. A group of teachers is assigned to the task and given release time to work on the project as materials writers. One of the senior teachers is put in charge. However, the team members cannot agree on the goals of the project or the best approach to take in writing the materials. There is constant tension within the team and a rapid turnover of writers. Consequently, the project takes much longer to accomplish than planned.
Comment: A person who is a good teacher may not make a good mate-
rials developer or project leader. Better direction of the project was needed through recruitment of someone with appropriate qualifications and expe- rience. In addition, better communication was needed so that different per- ceptions of the project could be aired and differences resolved before they became problems. Clearer specifications of roles might also have led to fewer problems.
Example 2: A full-time textbook writer needs help in developing a textbook
series. She hires three graduate students who appear to have the necessary skills and experience. A contract is signed and the project commences. It soon emerges, however, that the graduate students do not have the skills needed to write independently and are able to undertake little more than sec- retarial roles within the project. The experienced writer finds it necessary to take on the major part of the writing, leading to tension and bad feeling because the contract is already signed.
Comment: The graduate students should have been given a trial period
to prove their worth before they were offered a contract. Problems that emerged early on in the project should have been aired so that replacement writers could have been recruited if necessary. ■
Example 3: A project team within a ministry of education is assigned to de-
velop a national textbook project in an EFL country. Team members are re- cruited by a professional recruitment agency. There is little difficulty recruiting writers, but there are few appropriate applicants for the role of project director. As a consequence, a succession of inexperienced or un- suitable appointees fill the post of project director, leading to serious prob- lems within the team and to disruption of the project deadlines.
Comment: The role of project director might have to be reconsidered and
Situation analysis 97
of employment for the project director might need to be reconsidered to enable a suitable candidate to be found. In addition, members of the project team should be consulted on how to resolve communication difficulties and other problems within the team.
Institutional factors
Ajanguage teaching progra.misjypjc.allv delivered in an institution such as ajmiyersity, school, or language institute. Differenjtypes of institutions cre- atejheir;o^™^£^ture," ithjitjsLjgJrings where peopjeinteract and where pat- terns emerge for communication, decision making, role relations, and con-" duct Morris (1994, 109) observes: ~~" ~--- Schools are organizations and they develop a culture, ethos or environment which might be favorable or unfavorable to encouraging change and the implementation of innovations. A school with a relatively open climate, where'' the teachers collaborate widi each other and where the principal and [senior teachers] are supportive of teachers, is more likely to try to implement a change. In contrast, a school where the principle focuses on administrative matters, the teachers work in isolation or in narrow subject-based groups and where there is no mechanism to discuss and try to solve problems is less likely to change.
A teaching institution is a collection of teachers, groups, and departments, sometimes functioning in unison, sometimes with different components functioning independently, or sometimes with components in a confrontational relationship. Within an institution there may be a Strong and positive climate to support innovation, one where there is effective and positive leadership and where change is received positively. On the otiier hand, there may be a climate where teachers distrust one another and the administration and have no firm commitment to the school.,
iiwtitutions-alsoJiaaffijh^ua^^ things. In some institu- tions, textbooks are the core of the curriculum and alfteacEers must use the prescribed texts. In other institutions, teachers work from course guidelines and supplement them as they see fit. Institutions also cJiffergreatW in their ley^J^fpiofession^Jisjn. In some institutions, there is a strong sense ofprr> fessional commitment and a culture of quality that influences every aspect of the institution's operations. In others, the driving force of die school may be monetary. As a cost-saving measure, heavy reliance is made on part-time teachers or teachers with little .training and experience. They are not paid for lesson preparation time and consequently teach their classes and then depart for their next teaching assignment, perhaps in another school.
In_addiuon to the human side of the institution, the physical aspects need tobe cojisidered^^WMtToiids of resources are"available for XeacrieTsTIs'there a~good teachers' reference room? What access do teachers have to the pho- tocopier? Who chooses textbooks and materials? Institutional factors thus relate to the following kinds of questions:
• What leadership is available within the school to support change and to help teachers cope with change?