Situative perspective to create knowledge

Using a situative perspective on knowledge, thinking and learning, Putnam and Borko (2000), have suggested that teacher learning is affected by the physical or social context within which learning is situated, the kinds of discourse communities supported, and the accessible tools. According to them, the optimal learning environment situates teacher learning inside and outside their school. Therefore, teachers are more likely to get entrenched in their own ideas and do not have access

to alternative theories and ideas when they are not meeting other teachers and reflecting on their pedagogical practices.

Research indicates that valuable learning activities involve teachers reflecting on their own beliefs (Joyes, 2006; Putnam and Borko, 2000). This is understood as having access to alternative practices and beliefs that are reflective of their subject and grade level, whilst observing the positive impact these practices have on students’ learning (Richardson and Placier, 2001; Sandholtz et al., 1990; Snoeyink and Ertmer, 2002) and engaging in learning over time (McKenzie, 2001).

The increasing availability of computer-based tools and resources and the growing emphasis on using these in subject teaching and learning has a potentially significant impact upon established patterns of classroom interaction. However, development of appropriate pedagogy for integrating use of ICT in subject teaching has seemingly lagged behind the massive hardware investments (Hennessy and Deaney, 2006). The need for pedagogical adaptation means that teachers often have to re-evaluate their position within their classroom, concentrating on the process of learning. Teachers using computers increasingly see themselves as facilitators of learning. This facet has to be considered when discussing the integration of ICT within the classroom.

Similarly, language teachers often perceive their role as facilitators of the learning of languages and students are perceived as independent, active and responsible learners. Digital technology has rendered the production and organisation of information more provisional and fluid and this has led to the belief that ICT-based activity lends itself to open-ended, exploratory learning with opportunities for pupil reflection, experimentation, explanation and interpretation (Hennessy and Deaney, 2006). This is similar to the cognitive active reflective role the language learner is presented with during the language learning process.

Another key feature of the teachers’ emerging pedagogic role is to foster development of new pupil strategies and skills for knowledge building and application in light of the information base becoming accessible.

In accordance with the cognitive approach (Pask, 1979), the new strategic skills and understandings require focus on the processes of learning rather than on its products, thereby allowing for self-organisation of learning. In the theory of language learning, this is what is referred to as the Input Hypothesis (Krashen, 1981), whereby Krashen refers to the fact that students need to hear a language and have access to it, and then structure their output accordingly, the focus being on the process rather than the product. A fluency approach is being adopted in this research, in contrast to an accuracy one.

Recent literature within the ICT field has moved away from the accuracy methodology, or, as Scott (2001) proposes, a transmission model, whereby trainees are given either a model to copy or an approach to adopt (the accuracy/product approach) in helping learners locate, extract, filter, edit, interpret and summarise appropriate information (e.g. Scrimshaw, 1997, Loveless et al., 2001) and develop an awareness of where information has come from, who put it there and why (the fluency/process approach).

Comparing the process of integrating ICT with that of learning a language, Bailey and Celce-Murcia (1979), refer to the possibility of using collaborative teaching for teacher training:

‘A collaborative teaching set-up can also provide an ideal situation for practising coaching […] a process by which two teachers work together in a teaching team, but for the purposes of enhancing teacher development rather than pupil instruction per se.’ (p.320)

To sum up, if one had to look at the ‘process’ rather than the ‘product’ of ICT integration within the classroom, one would be able to contrast the integration of ICT more directly with that of learning a language, and place it within the framework shown below in Figure 2.6 instead of within the language block.

Fig. 2.6: Adapted from Nunan Collaborative Learning (1993)

In this model the main components are: (1) the personal growth;

(2) the learning process; (3) the learning task.

These three areas are seen as the mainframe of the notion of language learning as learner education or, as I have argued above, cognition education – whereby the learner takes control of the learning processes and organises them to structure the

Personal growth: Self-concept Self-esteem Learning Task: Language Task competence:

Map of task Conceptual Experience Apply Reflect Learning Process: Process competence control of learning tools Awareness of:

1. Oneself as a person and learner 2. Learning process (metacognition) 3. Learning task – self directed

learning, empowerment of the learner

output (Krashen, 1981). The discussion, or discursive approach, that takes place while this process is occurring helps the learners to conceptualise the process, create the scaffolding structure and integrate new knowledge through reflective processes.

The literature provides evidence that the way teachers use language in relation to the use of ICT reflects their practice, their competence in use of technology and their pedagogic practice:

‘The learning that did occur most likely would not have been accomplished without participation in this enquiry group because that learning was intertwined with the discourse and tools with which the teachers interacted.’ (Hughes and Ooms, 2004; p. 6)

Technical issues may predominate early on, leading to reflection on practice. There appears to be less potential transformation when teachers focus on integrating technology into their current practices (Maloy et al., 2003), unless a facilitator encourages teacher exploration of new learning methods or technologies (Bonk et al., 2002).

Naidu et al. (1992) stated that ‘small-group talk and writing yield cognitive and social gains that far outweigh the difficulties of setting up and maintaining teacher groups.’ They believed that such groups evolve forms of talk that sustain initial enthusiasm and ensure on-going renewal. They came to this conclusion after their study of a group of English teachers at tertiary level institutions in Bangalore, South India. This PhD research will examine the nature of the language that teachers may use as they develop their understanding in their enquiry group, since this may reflect their development whilst implementing new pedagogical practices.

Overall, the common content area or purpose will facilitate sustained reflection and discussion with regard to content knowledge and pedagogical beliefs. In the workshop approach to technology professional development, a lack of common subject area among participants has been cited as an impediment to learning (Snoeyink and

Ertmner, 2002). In this enquiry group approach, the studying and understanding of the temporal dimension of collaborative work represented a considerable theoretical and practical challenge (Issroff, 1999).

The focus of this PhD has been informed by the literature reviewed above and applied the action research enquiry approach to a study of the group. The optimal conditions for continuous professional development have indicated that enquiry groups are more effective (Windschitl and Sahl, 2002; Hughes and Ooms, 2004), with the teacher taking more control of their students’ own learning, as indicated by Becker and Ravitz’s (1999) study, where students were given more control.

The evolution of the teacher’s role when constructing a supportive environment for learning with ICT is exemplified by the emphasis made on pupil research:

‘communication and collaboration in a recent international study of technology innovations in 28 countries […] and a corresponding shift in the teacher’s primary role to one of advising, structuring, guiding and assessing.’ (Hennessy and Deaney, 2006; p. 729)

With this shift comes different language use as teachers express themselves according to the phase they are in. In particular, the shift in focus is away from screens and ICT equipment in the classroom to the process of learning characterised by exploration, reflection and discussion. The language used is indicative of a developing understanding of practice.

Teachers within this research group had never been trained in a collaborative constructivist manner. They had never used collaborative methods in the classroom. They were used to pair work and the occasional group work to practice language speaking skills, but had never used group work to achieve objectives. Therefore, they

were in a process in which they were constructing their pedagogy and deciding what was relevant to their learning needs.

This research has the following new facets: (1) it was an enquiry group case study; and

(2) it utilised concordancing to analyse the language used in the enquiry groups.

2.4 Summary

Effective teachers in general adapt to their pupils’ needs by preparing appropriate materials and setting constrained tasks with clear objectives and meaningful contexts (Nunan, 1990), thereby allowing learners to become collective resources for their own learning. This happens as the learners define what they are being taught and what the focus of the class is, albeit not consciously. In this instance the enquiry group led the focus of the research.

This research set out to explore changes in pedagogic practice associated with the introduction of ICT in classrooms. One of the key aims of the S.A.I.L. project was to design software and training to encourage constructivist classroom practices. The material used was that of software designed on the Roma topic, which had an underlying constructivist pedagogic design. Consequently, teachers adopted constructivist practices within the classroom whilst meeting regularly to inquire on new practices that each was trying out in his/her respective classroom. As reported above, when integrating ICT within the classroom there is some evidence that teachers tend to become more constructivist in their classroom practice (Becker and Ravitz, 1999).

This chapter has reported on the literature that provides the rationale for the design of the enquiry group approach to the CPD ‘training’, which is the context for the research. It has demonstrated a link between developing classroom practice and changes in the nature of the discourse about teaching and learning that teachers use.

Chapters 1 and 2 have explained how the aim of this research evolved into one of developing an understanding of ways in which a teacher enquiry group can support the introduction of ICT into the classroom, and any discourse change that occurs while this was happening. While the precise nature of the enquiry group process is discussed in Chapter 2, and it showed that enquiry groups can influence pedagogic understanding (2.3.4 - 2.3.6), the intention of this research was to explore the evidence that the enquiry group promotes these changes in practice, Chapter 3 looks at the methodology that was used to examine this.