Social Learning Theory

3.0 Introduction

The previous chapter presented scholarly views on initiation rituals and how these views could be useful in shaping the discussion on the influence of initiation rituals on behavioural change towards the prevention of HIV and AIDS. This chapter outlines and explains the theoretical framework that informs this study. Social learning theory is proposed as a theoretical basis for understanding the significance and role of the Varemba circumcision and initiation ritual in HIV prevention through the behavioural change of the individuals. It is used to interpret the meaning and significance of the circumcision and initiation ritual from the perspective of the Varemba people. Social learning theory explains how behaviour is learnt, reinforced, maintained, and diffused to other members of the society.

3.1 Social Learning Theory

The social learning theory is used in this research to interpret how behaviour is learnt and acquired by the initiates during the Varemba initiation rituals. The theory is used to show how behaviour, attitudes and values are transmitted to the initiates. The social learning theory is also referred to as the social cognitive theory, the roots of which are embedded in the work of the psychologist, Albert Bandura (1986).

The social learning theory represents the social construction of reality. The view is that human beings are capable of creating reality which then produces itself. The social learning theory has as its core the conception that what people know and believe about how the world is constructed is true because they are responsible for its creation (LeComte, 2000). The social learning theory is about the reality we make, not what we find. This means that human beings do not search for reality but contribute to its creation. This view is useful in understanding the Varemba initiation rituals as acts that are created by human beings who perceive meaning in them. The rituals in

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return influence the human beings by creating meaning, which they understand. Initiation rituals are a result of the society’s creation and the Varemba people have their reasons for creating these. Initiation rituals are a reality that conveys meanings which the indigenous people can understand and which help in changing their mindsets. Rituals are primarily forms of human association that result from shared ideas (Wendt, 1999). Wendt (1999) states that meaningful behaviour or action is possible only within a controlled and predetermined social context.

Humanity is responsible for shaping its behaviour in line with societal and cultural expectations.

The social learning theory considers how rules and norms condition people’s behaviour, preferences and understandings (Babbie and Mouton, 2001).

According to Bandura (1986), the interaction between human beings and their environment produces learning. This means that the continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioural and environmental determinants contribute to the shaping of an individual’s behaviour (Smith and Berge, 2009). The continuous interaction of the Varemba people in the

circumcision and initiation ritual influences the behaviour of the individual. Therefore, a platform is created in the group to influence group behaviours in which individuals copy the

behaviours of other group members. An individual’s behaviour is best explained in the context of the interaction of these variables. The social learning theory has its foundation in the behaviourists’ theories, which emphasise on stimulus responses (Callery, 1990). Any observable behaviour does not emanate from internal determinants such as thinking and emotions, but they are a result of environmental stimuli.

The social learning theory is also known as the social cognitive theory because it introduces concepts of cognitive response (Tutuska, 2006). Social learning may take on different dimensions that include behaviour patterns, rules of creating behaviour, cognitive competence and judgemental standards. According to Bandura, most behaviour is learned by observation through modelling (Bandura, 1986). The theory is useful in explaining the role of the mentor and ritual leaders in the Varemba initiation ritual, in shaping the behaviours of the initiates.

Modelling has been defined as doing what others do or imitating others (Smith and Berge, 2009).

Individual people are responsible for modelling the behaviours of other people.

The social learning theory is useful in explaining the forces behind the Varemba initiation ritual that influences individuals to behave in certain ways. This helps to understand the effectiveness

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of the Varemba initiation ritual in moulding an individual’s behaviour. There are factors that influence individuals to behave in a certain way; these determinants are referred to as positive and negative reinforcements (Strand and Smith, 2008). They produce feelings of adequacy and efficacy to enact new behaviour. The reasons for the uninitiated male in the Varemba culture to feel compelled to undergo the initiation ritual could be explained in the sense that society has structures which provoke a feeling of inadequacy, for example, through labelling the uninitiated individuals as “boys”, regardless of age, and treat them as outcasts by depriving them of societal rights and responsibilities. Therefore, the social learning theory provides groundwork through which one can interpret and understand the Varemba ritual clearly.

According to Strand and Smith (2008), social norms, suggest that people do things to please or follow people they admire. There is vicarious learning in which human beings learn through observing the effects of the environment or other peoples’ behaviour. They learn what is expected of them through their behaviour via the experiences of others, especially if those behaviours or experiences have been reinforced.

The social learning theory is useful in helping to understand the behaviour of the initiates and that which influences their change of behaviour towards HIV prevention. In the framework of social learning, the Varemba circumcision and initiation rites could be taken as a form of communication that transmits certain character traits considered valuable by the society.

Initiation rituals provide humanity with a framework of interpreting and understanding the world. Therefore, they could be understood as interpretive tools that are used to correct and guide people towards appropriate behaviour. The initiation ritual prohibits the individuals from displaying the kind of behaviour that might demean the cultural worldview and the world of the ancestors.

In as far as the Varemba initiation ritual is concerned, there is a need to consider the degree of its impact on the people and the extent to which their behaviours are governed by rules and regulations governing rituals. If any influence is exerted, this indicates that the Varemba initiation ritual has a transformative character; it has the capability to transform people’s attitudes towards HIV and AIDS.

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Human beings seek objective meaning of their experiences and the objects in the world they inhabit. Therefore, human beings are capable of socially defining and finding meaning on issues concerning their health, disease, illness and treatment. According to Babbie and Mouton (2001), the culture of a society is responsible for creating how people think and feel about sickness and healing. The Varemba people as a cultural group have norms and values that govern their understanding of sickness and disease. Healing is possibly derived from their worldview, if they hold the belief that sickness is caused by the supernatural world. This means that individuals make decisions about whether to consult an ethno-medical or biomedical practitioner. The implication of this regarding this research is that if conceptions of disease, illness and healing are socially and culturally constructed, it therefore means that solutions to health problems are also socially and culturally constructed. Kleinmann (1995) posits that healthcare systems are socially and culturally constructed and form part of social reality. This implies that solutions to the problems of HIV and AIDS can be culturally constructed and culturally imparted.

According to Gergen (1985), social learning discourse is a process whereby people describe, account and explain the world they live in. In this study, the Varemba people explain their worldview within the context of the initiation ritual and HIV and AIDS. Knowledge is not something that people possess but something they construct. For this reason there is a need to explore cultural practices in order to interpret initiation rituals into meaningful solutions towards HIV prevention strategies. This research is an attempt to create knowledge from the Varemba initiation ritual and to show how this knowledge can become useful in addressing the problems of HIV and AIDS pandemic. Initiation rituals disseminate cultural values that are embedded in society and legitimise information, behaviour, and knowledge about norms and values of the society.

Social learning provides a framework for this research because enables insight into the value of the Varemba initiation ritual and how meaning is constructed and understood by the society. In brief, social learning sheds light on how the rituals are used symbolically to provide an explanation of the narratives behind peoples’ daily practices and experiences.

The social learning theory is used in the current study as it assists in determining the meanings ascribed to the initiation ritual by the Varemba people. The social learning theory provides this research with insight into the meaning and interpretation of the Varemba initiation ritual phases

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and procedures, such as the meaning of seclusion, circumcision and the reintroduction of the initiates and society. The theory is useful in interpreting how the Varemba understand and interpret sexuality issues in line with behavioural change.

Much of the social learning takes place when an individual observes the actual performances of others and sees the consequences their actions. The Varemba society provides a cultural environment that reinforces and punishes individuals who stray. If for example, a young person changes from the group of non-circumcised people to join the other group of the initiates, the chance of him being accepted by the new group is high and thus reinforced by that group. Smith and Berge (2009) notes that a self-regulatory process occurs when an individual has his own perception about what is appropriate and inappropriate behaviour and acts accordingly (Bandura, 1985). This is dependent on the society as there are certain customs that are acceptable and some that are not acceptable, such as performing an initiation ritual publicly or mingling with people who do not belong to the same cultural group during the initiation ceremony. One who does this becomes an outcast and is liable to be punished. The theory explains how different forms of behaviour are acquired and maintained, which is important in understanding the Varemba initiation ritual. The ritual regulates behaviour and actions; if the behaviour results in rewards it will be reinforced, however, if it results in punishment, it will be discarded. Certain behaviours are refrained from if the individuals see their models being punished for exhibiting them.

3.1.1 The Concept of Social Diffusion and Innovation in the Social learning Theory

Social diffusion explains the transmission of ideas and behaviours from a central power to the rest of the society. Bandura (1986) introduced the concept of social diffusion to explain how ideas and social practices spread from one society to another and how they influenced social change. He also introduced the concept of innovation, which is conceived as any idea, practice, or service perceived to be new (Bandura, 1986). Smith and Strand (2008) note that innovation, be it technology or behaviour, spreads to the other parts of the community, beginning with early adherents.

Bandura (1986) also explains that when new ideas and practices are introduced the rate of absorption and acceptance is very slow; customs resist change because they are uncertain of the outcome. Similarly, in the case of using male circumcision, rituals as a strategy for the

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prevention of HIV might gradually be accepted. The rate of acceleration only increases when more information is supplied about the application of new approaches and their potential benefits. The theory helps this study to interpret and understand the role of the Varemba initiation ritual in the diffusion of information considered valuable in the Varemba culture.

3.1.2 Social Cultural Diffusion

To improve the quality of life, some societies are pressurised into changing some of their traditional practices. Improved benefits can only be achieved by displacing some entrenched customs and introducing new social organisations and technologies (Bandura, 1986). King (1999) contends that societal norms, religion and gender power relations help to infuse meaning into behaviour, enabling positive and negative change. Similarly, in the case of the Varemba initiation ritual, an individual member identifies with peers who may have gone through a similar initiation ritual. The one whom he identifies with has the most will have had contributed significantly to his behaviour. According to Bandura (1986), these are called social incentives.

When people act in certain ways, they do so to gain approval from others and they generally desist from actions that would incur disapproval.

3.1.3 Status and Power Incentives

According to Bandura (1986), social power also provides a measure of control over the behaviour of other people. Through the power some members exert over others, they enjoy the jurisdiction over people’s lives; they enjoy material rewards, social recognition and privileges associated with high rank. Social changes are resisted when they conflict with the entrenched societal values.

3.1.4 Relevance to the Current Study

The social learning theory explains how people copy and reinforce behaviours. In the context of the Varemba initiation ritual, modelling is thought of as an effective mode of transmitting values, attitudes, and patterns of thought and behaviour of the initiates and the society. Modelling can influence moral thinking and moral judgement and can have an impact on the development of what is deemed right or wrong and therefore can influence the choices one makes about life, especially in the context of HIV and AIDS.

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After the performance of the Varemba initiation, chances of deviating from the cultural values of the group are limited because one’s behaviour is always influenced by the behaviours, attitudes and moods of the peers. An individual is inclined to live according to the dictates of the ritual and the likelihood of being contrary are unlikely because of those who have authority, for example, cultural leaders who act as overseers and always enforce the values of the society.

Observational learning is very effective in transmitting values, attitudes and patterns of thought behaviour in the Varemba culture where learning is achieved by observing others and by going through the same initiation ritual with others. Through observing the behaviour of peers, the individual would consider reinforcements for enacting certain behaviours. The reinforcement would only be effective if it is positive and avoided if it were negative. The social learning theory is significant in this study to explain how the individual’s behaviour is moulded, reinforced, maintained and transmitted.

3.2 Summary

This chapter discussed the theoretical framework which underpins this research. The social learning theory explains how human beings act as agents of the society’s creation, and the reasons they have for creating worldviews. The theory provides an objective platform of interpreting the influence of the Varemba initiation ritual to the society as they attempt to ascribe meaning to the world they live in. Humanity shapes one’s behaviour in line with societal and cultural expectations. The meanings they produce are transferred to the rest of the group through the social learning theory. By observing the behaviours of peers, an individual would consider reinforcements for enacting certain behaviours and therefore is motivated to change his behaviour and behave like his peers. The next chapter outlines the research methodology.

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