SOCIALLY AWARE SOFTWARE ENGINEERING METHOD 123

The Softbridge stack and QoC abstractions evolved through the course of the action research cycles of both field studies. The process situated iterative system prototyping within action research stages. Cyclical reflection, as conveyed in Chapters 6 and 7, and Appendices A and D, provides the means to align social and technical imperatives. This caused us to include social factors in the design and evaluation abstractions, and consequently into the research prototypes deployed and evaluated in the field. Reflections on the research method itself helped to recursively evolve the SASE method. Blake and Tucker (2006a) described initial thoughts on SASE. That description combined user-centred HCI methods, participatory design, software prototyping and action research. As mentioned in Section 3.1.4, methods like participatory design can be problematic until participants acquire sufficient ICT literacy. Users cannot help design, but they can actively participate. SASE therefore requires a great degree of help from intermediaries. However, the Softbridge abstractions and the method are not meant for the intermediaries or the participants. The Softbridge framework comprises a tool for the computer scientist to align social and technical imperatives in an ICT4D intervention. The overall Softbridge framework is shown in Figure 8-5.

Figure 8-5 The Softbridge framework

The Softbridge framework abstractions and method arose from the iterative process of action research because we were able to abstract common characteristics from reflection on the Deaf telephony and rural telehealth field studies and their prototypes. We used RA/RI criteria during the design, evaluation and reflection stages of each action research cycle. We revised prototypes based on that reflection that in turn led to a better understanding of the Softbridge framework components.

Real Access/Real Impact Physical access Appropriateness

Affordability

Human capacity and training Locally relevant content

Integration to daily life Socio-cultural factors

Trust in technology Local economics Macro-economics Legal and regulatory Public support and political will People Temporality Media Device Network Power Interface People Temporality Media Device Network Power Interface

The methods for the two field studies were very similar because they indirectly influenced one another. The initial Deaf telephony bridges instigated ideas about semi- synchronous delivery and media bridging that gave rise to both Softbridge and QoC abstractions. Lessons learnt at one field study informed the umbrella framework that could then be applied to the other field study. Table 8-2 summarises an abstracted trajectory of the SASE method over the course of both field trials. The most significant progression was from an emphasis on the production of prototypes to the encouragement of participants to pursue their own technological agenda.

2003 We acknowledged the need for external evaluation because we were trained software engineers with a social agenda. We contracted bridges.org to assist in that regard.

2004 We began interacting with communities via intermediaries. In both cases we emphasised technological solutions for community needs that we thought were most important.

2005 The software prototypes were not used as much as we had hoped for. We tried to increase usage by redesigning technical features, but prototype use still did not increase.

2006 The communities began to use research infrastructure in other ways. They adopted ICT into their lives, but not the prototypes that we originally envisaged to be most beneficial to them. 2007 We supported the burgeoning alternative uses of the infrastructure we had provided.

Table 8-2 Evolution of the research method

The improvement in participants' training and human capacity enabled this progression to happen in conjunction with our growing understanding of RA/RI criteria. Participants in both field studies came to embrace fundamental Internet access and generic Web 2.0 tools much more than the research prototypes. However, it was the process of experimentation with the prototypes that enabled the underlying infrastructure to be laid, and the consequent increase in ICT skills. As evidence for the integration of ICT into their lives, DCCT took over payments for the monthly ADSL and Internet costs and Canzibe doctors installed their own VSAT. The doctors, together with Transcape, applied the MUTI wireless network approach to share that bandwidth.

Both field studies required substantial effort in coordinating stakeholders, including participants and their coordinating bodies, e.g. the district DoH for rural telehealth; NGOs and intermediaries; and software developers, e.g. post-graduate students and full-time programmers (who were mostly former students). ICT4D research projects also require a great deal of funding for human resources, hardware and travel. In some ways, an ICT4D project leader is most often a project manager. Someone with both technical and social skills needs to manage such ICT4D projects, e.g. one of Heeks' (2008) hybrids. Project management was primarily driven as a software development exercise informed by bridges.org's RA/RI criteria and their '12 habits'. Table 8-3 summarises a synthesis of the latter.

Start by doing some homework*

Start with the target community. Try to find information about similar communities in other parts of the country. Then look to global literature.

Needs assessment

Perform this in iterations. The evaluation and reflection phases of each action research cycle become the needs assessment for the next cycle.

Local ownership and champion

There can be multiple types of champions and not all champions are effective. A champion based in a local NGO is helpful because they take ownership, and tend to stay in the area. Engage local problem solver*

NGOs are also a good source of local problem solvers. They need not also be champions. Form sound partnerships*

Partner with an intermediary to gain entry to and trust from a community. Set concrete goals and take small steps

Take small steps, but take them quickly so participants see and participate in their progression. Technology-neutral*

Design for interchangeability at all Softbridge layers. Involve excluded groups

Train such groups to empower them to participate. Give them project responsibilities. Use a 'teach the teacher' approach.

Identify and understand external challenges

Recognise that understanding of underlying social dynamics will unfold over time and that technology can be designed to accommodate such dynamics.

Monitor and evaluate with appropriate tools

System instrumentation helps triangulate qualitative data. Make it sustainable

Sustainability is not the researcher's responsibility. That lies in the hands of the community power structures and government, and can be fostered by local NGOs. Empower the community to help itself.

Widely disseminate

Popular media such as radio and weeklies is much more effective than academic literature.

Table 8-3 Synthesis of bridges.org's 12 habits from the field studies

This table identifies the key similarities between the two field studies with respect to bridges.org's 12 habits of highly effective ICT-enabled development initiatives. Because of their interaction with us, bridges.org's added four habits to the original eight. These are marked with an asterisk. Again, the similarities between the two field studies argue for the usefulness of bridges.org's work in the field of ICT4D.

The importance of being in the community on a regular basis cannot be stressed enough. The two field studies had drastically different visit schedules. We visited the Eastern Cape infrequently, but often stayed at least a week (see Table D-1). We visited the Bastion on a

weekly basis for several years, but only for a few hours at a time. In both cases, the repeated and regular presence built relationships, and established trust and acceptance within the respective communities. Virtual presence was just as important as physical presence. ICT- based communication between participants and researchers established familiarity with ICT and acted as an example for usage with others. We used SMS, email, IM and the cell phone to keep in constant contact with participants and technical support in the field. Constant contact with intermediaries provided surrogate contact with community participants since they interacted with the community on a daily basis.