Table 2.1 Questions prompts to generate feedback (Hattie and Brown, 2012)
Feedback level Question prompts Task(product)-level
• Does the answer meet the success criteria? • Is this answer correct/incorrect?
• How can the student elaborate on the answer? • What is the correct answer?
• What other information is needed to meet the criteria? Process-level
• What is wrong and why?
• What strategies did the student use?
• What is the explanation for the correct answer? • What are the relationships with other parts of the task?
• What is the student’s understanding of the concepts/knowledge related to the task?
Self-regulation level
• How can the student monitor his/her own work done? • How can the student carry out self-checking? • how can the student reflect on his/her own learning?
• What further doubts does the student have regarding the task? • What learning goals was achieved?
According to Airasian (1997) about 90 % of teachers’ questions in classrooms are aimed at product level feedback . Relating this to the Bloom’s taxonomy, it may be argued that questions eliciting product-level feedback are at the base of the pyramid while process and self-regulation questions are higher up.
2.3
The spectrum of learning theories
Pedagogy is derived from the Greek word meaning “to lead the child” (Elliott, 2008). Its modern usage relates to the art and science of teaching and includes the theories of teaching
2.3 The spectrum of learning theories 24
and learning (Pachler, 2005). The learning theories relevant to assessments and feedback and the use of technology will be explored in this section. A consideration of sound pedagogical principles guide when and how best to use computer technology.
2.3.1
Behaviourism
Behaviourism is one of the oldest teaching methods. This psychological theory asserts that learning manifests itself in behaviour either changed or reinforced behaviour (Cooper, 1993). It argues that learning is a process of forming associations between stimuli in the environment and corresponding responses of the individual. Reinforcement strengthens responses and increases the likelihood of another occurrence when the stimulus is present again (Elliott, 2008). It is typified by rote learning, drill-and-practice skill acquisition, and a punishment-and-reward system of learning. Current assessment practice, in all sectors, exhibits a behaviouralist approach – rewarding success (with a “pass”) and punishing failure (by withholding certification) (Elliott, 2008). ICTs provides students with a Computer- Assisted Instruction that gives instant feedback and control over separate tasks (Pachler, 2005). In the behaviourist model, learning takes place in a highly controlled environment, through drill-and-practice techniques. It manifests itself through changed behaviours such as the acquisition of new practical or mental skills (Elliott, 2008).
2.3.2
Cognitivism
Cognitive learning theories view learning as a process of understanding and internalising facts and concepts about the world (Cooper, 1993). In the cognitivist model, knowledge and understanding are represented by discrete mental states; unique synaptic combinations that represent specific knowledge and understanding (Ertmer and Newby, 1993). According to Pachler (2005), cognitivism takes a data processing approach to learning, with the student being likened to the computer which inputs, processes and outputs information. Cognitivism relies on both teacher and student. The teacher provides content and leads learning (i.e. the creation of specific mental models); the student is responsible for internalising the material presented by the teacher. Cognitivism recognises the individual differences between students, each having his or her own pre-conceived ideas and preferred learning styles. But knowledge remains essentially pre-determined, with the role of the teacher being to facilitate learning through a series of learning activities (Pachler, 2005).
2.3 The spectrum of learning theories 25
Piaget (1971) was among the first authors to study cognitive development in children. His theory has three components:
1. Schemas are units of understanding or linked mental representations which are stored and applied when needed
2. Adaptation is adjusting to the world by using existing schema to deal with new knowledge, also known as assimilation. Moreover, the process of accommodation happens when the existing schema needs to be changed because it does not work with the new knowledge
3. When the child’s schema is able to accept new information through assimilation equilibrium is achieved. When the child’s schema is not able to accepts new information disequilibrium occurs. When disequilibrium occurs, the child will adapt the existing schema to include the new information. When this occurs it is known as equilibration i.e. the child restores the balance
In cognitivism, ICTs provide computer as a tutor based on theories of artificial intelligence and theories of information processing (Pachler, 2005). The assumption was that it is possible to design software that emulates the thinking and problem solving of domain experts. The idea was that these “intelligent” technologies can also work as skilled teachers or tutors, providing every student with personal tutors that follow the progress of learning and provide feedback and support when needed.
2.3.3
Constructivism
Constructivism is based on the student being active in the learning process (Ertmer and Newby, 1993). Bruner (1966), considers learning as the process of building or constructing concepts based on current knowledge rather than the memorization of facts. He argued that the purpose of education was to build the child thinking and problem solving skills and that knowledge can be taught to any child at any level of development. His idea lead to the spiral curriculum where complex ideas are introduced in a simple manner and revisited at a later stage of learning (Glasersfeld, 1989).
Bruner (1966) and Vygotsky (1980) in their seminal works argued that the social environment help the child to learn. This lead to what is known as social constructivism where the social environment is believed to play a crucial role in learning (Vygotsky, 1980). For Bruner, this was a concept of scaffolding (achieve a specific goal through a structured environment) whereas for Vygostsky, this was the Zone of Proximal Development (where a person with
2.3 The spectrum of learning theories 26
more knowledge can help the student achieve the next level of difficulty)(Bruner, 1966; Vygotsky, 1980). The theorists argue that scaffolding and the zone of proximal development can help the student achieve higher level thinking skills quicker. Vygotsky believed that social learning was the precursor to cognitive development. Other theorists such as Gangne and Dewey also contributed to this constructivist learning paradigm (Dewey, 2007; Gagne, 1980).
Learning approaches using contemporary ICTs provide many opportunities for constructivist learning through their student centered environments based on their context. Given, that knowledge is constantly advancing; the design and development principles need to be aligned with teacher and students emerging requirements. Adopting the theory of constructivism with ICTs in modern classes provide a contrast to traditional classrooms where teachers used a linear model and one-way communication, the modern learning is becoming more personalized, student-centric, non-linear and student-directed (Pachler, 2005).
2.3.4
Information Processing Approach and Cognitive Load theories
The information processing approach was developed in the 1960s when the computer first came on stream (Rogers et al., 1999). The computer allowed psychologist to compare the way the human mind processed information to that of the computer. Out of this approach came the principles of selective attention span and attentional capacity. In the selective attention span, humans are viewed to be selective when working on one activity and can ignore other stimulations. In attentional capacity, humans are viewed as being able to attend to a limited number of things at the same time before becoming overloaded.
Sweller (1994) developed the cognitive load theory in problem solving. According to him, to solve a problem a student needs a large amount of cognitive processing capacity. Humans however have limited working memory but an unlimited long-term memory. Because the working memory is limited and can only process a limited number of items at one time schemas are used. Schemas are considered one item even though the schema being recalled may be complex in nature. Information needs to be structured in such a way as to allow for the learner to be able to develop schemas quickly and automatically. These schemas once created, will be stored in the long-term memory and can be recalled when needed. This way the limited working memory is not overloaded.
Sweller (1994) identified three types of cognitive loads. The first is intrinsic cognitive load. This refers to the inherent complexity of the task being performed. It cannot be controlled
2.3 The spectrum of learning theories 27
because some tasks are more difficult than others. Intrinsic cognitive load is managed by chunking content into smaller problems. The second is the extraneous cognitive load. This occurs when extra unnecessary information is provided with the task to be performed. It actually detracts from the learning process. When intrinsic cognitive load is high, extraneous cognitive load causes problems to the learning process. The third is germane cognitive load. It refers to the mental activity of task that is conducted during the learning process. This leads to the acquisition of schema and is considered the good cognitive load. When a task is high in intrinsic load but low in extraneous load, there will be high germane load (Sweller, 1994). This is when true leaning occurs.
2.3.5
Implications of the learning theories for development of assess-
ment environments
Today, learning is bringing the shifts from linear to multimedia learning, from instruction to construction and discovery, from being largely teacher-centred to being student-centred education, from absorbing material to learning how to navigate and how to learn, from school to lifelong learning, from learning as torture to learning as fun and from the teacher as sole transmitter to the teacher as guide and facilitator. The implementation of current pedagogies is that students will be more active in their learning and assessments. Knowledge is embedded in interactions with the environment as the constructivist theory suggests. Meaningful learning occurs when learners are actively involved and have the opportunity to take control of their own learning. This means that current educational practices should emphasise the active engagement of students in the learning process and the use of teaching strategies. Assessment processes then, should enable students to demonstrate deep understanding of concepts rather than surface knowledge and recall of facts. Assessment should be able to reveal the quality of students’ understanding and thinking as well as specific content or processes. Appropriate feedback throughout the learning process should lead students to modify and refine their thinking. ICTs can provide student centred environment where the learning processes can be measured and assessed.
Both the Cognitive Load Theory and Information Processing Approach can be applied in instructional and tool design. The idea is that instructional design should not overload a student’s working memory and should allow the student to complete one task before attending to the next. Also learning cannot take place when the working memory and attention span is overloaded. These ideas provide the basis for developing effective learning and assessment environments that benefits students and other stakeholders.