TIE UP THE SPEECH. Ending the speech by repeating a phrase or an idea from the introduction is a highly effective

rhetorical device, especially if a concrete image or anecdote is used, as this is easy for the audience to connect to. This sends a signal to the audience that the speech is finished.

It can be helpful to read the first draft of the speech out loud to gain a sense of its flow and its length. Strong language is often amplified when spoken; hearing the speech puts you in the shoes of the audience.

When the first draft is ready, the speaker should have the opportunity to edit and refine it. This is necessary to make sure that the speaker takes ownership over the speech. This makes for a more genuine and forceful presentation; a speech that the speaker does not own risks coming across as phoney.

It can be useful to share the final draft as a courtesy, for example by giving embargoed copies to the media if it is a public event or to interested member states. Interpreters often appreciate receiving advance copies so that they can prepare.

LANGUAGE AND STYLE

The language and style appropriate to the speech depend on the occasion, context, audience, and speaker. A speech to a group of university students will have a very different style from a ceremonial speech at a police medal parade. But there are some general tips to keep in mind.

Use short, succinct sentences. The same goes for words – keep them simple. Even the most attentive listener will have a hard time understanding long, complicated sentences with multisyllabic words and series of dependent clauses. Nothing alienates an audience more than long words, long sentences, and long speeches.

Use lively, forceful language. Try to use concrete rather than abstract nouns as much as possible. Even briefings to member

states benefit from avoiding bureaucratic language and jargon.

Descriptive language creates images in the listener’s mind. This tends to be more appealing to listen to and leaves a more lasting impression than abstract language.

Strike a balance between emotive and neutral language. Speeches tend to err on the side of exaggeration since emotive words are weaker when written than when spoken. Understatements are often more powerful than exaggerations.

Humour can be effective in the right circumstances but should be used sparingly. Humour also depends on the personality of the speaker. If the speaker can be funny, it may be wisest to let him or her rely on his or her own wit rather than trying to make your speech funny.

Be conscious of value-laden language, connotations, and implications. For example, describing a situation as a “problem” can elicit a negative response because no one likes problems. Instead, diplomats often talk of “issues”, which is a more neutral word.

Another example is to talk of “events” to describe occurrences such as riots and violent clashes. These euphemisms are often used to avoid causing offence or making a value judgement that someone may feel compelled to react to.

In conflicts over territory and between ethnic groups, place-names can have many layers of value-laden meaning. In Kosovo, for example, many towns have names in both Serbian and Albanian.

Using one or the other can be interpreted as acceptance of one side or the other having a better claim on the place. The UN has tried to avoid this by using both names for every town, for example Peja/Pec.

The most important thing to remember when writing a speech is to write the way you speak. Our spoken language is different from our written language. We speak in shorter sentences with fewer clauses. Often we use fragments and single words rather than complete sentences. A speech should be written to be spoken – not to be read.

7 NEGOTIATION

Negotiation is a core function of diplomacy. It is a primary means by which states and other international parties interact with each other, pursue their interests, and advance their positions. Simply put, to negotiate is to engage in dialogue with the aim of achieving an agreement that is acceptable to you and your interlocutor.

While negotiating is at a fundamental level about furthering your interests, it is also about maintaining relationships. This puts limits on how far we are willing go in trying to convince others of our positions and to further our agenda. This constraining factor is particularly important in harnessing power in international relations.

Negotiation has a particular salience in international organisations. In one sense international organisations are little more than structured, permanent negotiations among their member states. What used to be ad hoc interaction between states has to a large extent been replaced by multilateral institutions governed by rules and procedures within which negotiations take place, such as the UN Security Council and NATO’s North Atlantic Council.

Negotiation is a broad activity. It can range from the quotidian, such as agreeing on the programme of a high-level visit with a protocol officer in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, to the elevated, such as negotiating a new international treaty on disarmament in a multilateral conference. The political adviser will invariably be engaged in negotiation in one form or another. It is not uncommon for the political adviser to support the principal as chief negotiator in negotiations.

This chapter sets out two approaches, positional and principled negotiations, then elaborates on some essential negotiation concepts. It concludes with the typical stages of a formal negotiation.

POSITIONAL AND PRINCIPLED