Staff development programs

Professional development is key for supporting teachers in new initiatives (Rezzonico, et al (2015); Smith & du Toit, 2016). One benefit of professional development includes teacher educators’ increased comfort and skill levels for implementing new curricula. Lia (2016) pointed out that relevant and effective professional development has been found to promote confidence and a greater understanding of objectives. Having time and conducting research to develop meaningful professional development that will consider the needs, concerns and experiences of the teacher educators will be valuable and likely to influence positive growth for the teacher educators (Lia, 2016; Wabule, 2016). Coldwell (2017) and Attard (2017) have both found a connection between teacher educator confidence and professional development. Coldwell (2017) found that professional development increased skills and knowledge, which enabled teachers’ confidence in specific content areas; this in turn led to increased job satisfaction and professional motivation.

Several studies have found that teacher educator efficacy stands out as area supported by effective and relevant professional development (Margolis, Durbin & Doring, 2017; Mukan et al., 2016). An assessment on teacher educator efficacy conducted by Drape, Lopez, and Radford (2016) in integrating new curriculum standards into content areas in classroom teaching, has found efficacy to be a primary factor in a teacher educators’ competency level when integrating different areas in an Agriculture curriculum. They recommended ongoing and relevant professional development to meet the needs of midcareer teacher educators. Maintaining teacher confidence and reducing anxiety through deliberate choices in professional development content both help to support teacher educators through curriculum change (Drape et al., 2016; Mukan et al., 2016).

Kyndt et al. (2016) offer further insight into teacher educators’ attitudes and beliefs as well as the concerns they experience from curriculum implementation through informal learning for professional growth. Teacher collaboration, team planning, or even monitoring may all be classified as informal learning opportunities. Informal learning though not organized (as formal professional development is), allows teacher educators to work together to reduce the feelings of isolation they often experience (Kyndt et al.,2016). Kyndt et al further express that experience and age do not appear to affect new learning as much as personal attitude does. Understanding the

differences in attitudes could help to break down the barriers to full curricular implementation. This situation indicates that professional development does not always need to be formal; most teacher educators hope that professional development will be relevant to their content areas and will allow them to collaborate and solve problems.

As the literature has pointed out, understanding teacher educators concerns helps campus managers / leaders when choosing the professional development that will be most relevant to the teacher educators (Bakir et al., 2016; Speering; 2016). Bautista et al. (2016) deliberated further on this notion through a study in which they investigated teacher beliefs, priorities, and professional development needs when implementing a curriculum. Bautista et al. (2016) and Whitenack and Venkatsubramanyan (2016) both found that teacher educators commonly showed eagerness for opportunities to strengthen their expertise in curriculum areas, and they needed professional development to do so. Teacher educators’ beliefs also influence their views of the curriculum. For example, if teacher educators perceive themselves as being unprepared or unfamiliar with a curriculum, then these beliefs will influence how they respond to and implement the curriculum (Bautista et al., 2016). Bautista et al (2016) recommend that professional development should require alignment with teacher educators’ learning demands to achieve optimal effectiveness.

In addition, professional development plays a part in reducing anxiety when implementing a new curriculum (Hall, 2015). Cetin (2016) found similar conclusion as Bautista et al. (2016) regarding the benefits of professional development. Cetin (2016) included an increased understanding of science teachers’ level of use for technology integration and the effect of professional sessions designed to improve comfort and proficiency. The teachers initially showed little knowledge on the subject area and a lack of training and skills necessary for successful integration. Cetin (2016) reported that following the professional development sessions for technology, 58% of the teachers developed increased confidence and positive outlooks about integration process. Cetin’s study (2016) provides a concrete example of how professional development improves teacher proficiency as well as alleviates concerns through the practical application of the curriculum. Teacher educators become more likely to implement curriculum with fidelity when they feel well prepared through professional development and develop the knowledge and awareness required for effective implementation (Cetin, 2016).

The Namibian Ministry of Education pointed out that teacher educators from the pre-independence dispensation find the implementation of the new curriculum programs challenging and sometimes not willing to conform to it, because their own “professional development has not kept track with educational development and practice.” (Ministry of Education, 1993: 21-22). Thus, because of their limited understanding especially about the new curriculum program, they could not be effective with the implementation. In this case, continuous, relevant professional development programs are the key to address and break this gap.

Joyce and Showers (2002) also state that professional development activities help teachers learn and apply new skills and knowledge. They further reported that only 10% of teacher educators add new strategies to their repertoire without ongoing support, but when continual professional development assistance is provided, up to 90% of teacher educators master new strategies. Reitzug (2003: 124) also reported that:

Evidence abounds of the significance of the relationship between the content of staff development, the quality of staff development, and student achievement, so long as staff development adheres to certain principles that focus on student learning and instruction, a commitment of time and resources to implement development over an extended period of time, and the development of professional development styles that engage teachers collaboratively rather focusing them as individuals.

Furthermore, Darling–Hammond (2003:2) has also pointed out that “teacher educators learn best by studying; doing and reflecting; by collaborating with others; by looking closely at students and their work; and by sharing what they see.”

Darling-Hammond, Ancess and Falk (1995) further pointed out that professional development takes teacher educators out of the role of passive receivers of information and places them instead in the position of collaboratively and actively constructing knowledge about teaching. Meaningful change can only be realized when those who work in campuses have the opportunity to develop new knowledge, skills and attitudes and therefore professional development is the key in

facilitating this change. Lastly, Elmore (2002) stated that the main purpose of professional development should not only be the improvement of individual teacher educator, but the improvement of the whole training system. Therefore, professional development is seen as a driving force to a successful curriculum implementation.

In the next section, I discuss critical social realism, a theory that underpins this study.

2.4. Critical realism

This study draws on critical realism (CR), in particularly Roy Bhaskar’s work and the social theory of Margaret Archer (1988; 1995; 1996; 2000). One of the primary reasons for the emphasis on critical realism is that it can generate important insights into social phenomena such as curriculum practices and experiences. In this section I discuss CR as a framework for this study, and summarize some of the important key elements of CR, which are relevant to this study.

CR as a theory is associated with a British philosopher named Bhaskar (1978; 1979). It was later developed and employed in social science by Bhaskar (1989) and many others, most notably by Archer (1995; 1996; 2000), Sayer (1992; 1999), Layder (1994) and Collier (1994; 1998). The philosophical approach of CR has been an object of growing interest (Mingers, 2004).

When exploring various ontological and epistemological philosophies. I found that a positivist and idealist philosophy could not help me understand why Namibian teacher education changed its curriculum and why the change does not happen as intended in most of the campuses. Bhaskar (1978) explains that idealists regard objects of knowledge as human constructs imposed upon the phenomenon and positivists rely on a sequence of events in accounting for the world. Thus, using positivist and idealists’ theories, this study could have provided an explanation of the curriculum change and implementation based on what the teacher educators think, know, and see or what I as a researcher observe, reducing the reality of the curriculum change and implementation to our knowledge of it (Roberts, 2001) or as other philosophers: Danermark, Ekstrom, Jacobsen and Karlsson, put it, collapsing ontology with epistemology (2002). Danermark, Ekstrom, Jacobsen and Karlsson (2002: 8) further argue that this “flat ontology” is rejected by critical realism and