STAGE3: Classification of research

It is very useful to identify the purpose of a research before framing its goals and objectives. According to Collis and Hussey (2014), social research projects can be classified into four categories: exploratory, descriptive, explanatory, and predicative research. However, an individual study may have multiple purposes or may be part of a program of research that spans from two to all four purposes.

5.5.1 Exploratory research

This type of research is conducted when there are very few or no existing studies for which we may have to refer for information about the issue or problem (Collis and Hussey, 2014). The main aim of this research is to discover and develop patterns and ideas rather than testing for hypothesis (Creswell and Tashakkori, 2007). Thus, Oates (2014) in his contribution puts forward that; exploratory research typically seeks to create hypothesis rather than testing them. Similarly, Bryman and Bell (2011) do argue that the goal of exploratory research is to formulate problems, clarify concepts and form

hypotheses. In exploratory research, the main focus is on gaining insights and familiarity with the subject area for more rigorous investigation on a larger scale.

Exploration may begin with a literature search, a focus group discussion, or case studies. In conducting a survey for exploratory purposes, no attempt is made to examine a random sample of a population. Instead, researchers will more often than not identify experts or individuals who are well vexed in a particular process or topic and subject them to brainstorming sessions, interviews, or post a short survey on a social media website.

5.5.2 Descriptive research

Under descriptive studies, there are guidelines to follow. It describes people, products, and situations (Blaike, 2014). Descriptive studies normally have one or more research questions as a guide and are generally not driven by structured research hypotheses (Collis & Hussey, 2014). This type of research frequently aims to describe the characteristics of populations based on data collected from samples (Oates, 2014). It often requires the use of a probability sampling technique such as the simple random sampling. Both the qualitative or quantitative methods can be used. However, the quantitative data presentations are usually limited to frequency distributions and summary statistics, such as averages. Customer satisfaction surveys, presidential approval polls, and class evaluation surveys are examples of descriptive experiments.

5.5.3 Explanatory or Analytical research

As its name suggests, explanatory research is used to explain why a phenomena occurs and also to predict future occurrences (Saunders et al., 2012). It is characterized by a research hypothesis that stipulates the nature and direction of the relationships between variables under study (Bryman & Bell, 2014). Explanatory research usually requires the probability sampling method because the objective is often to generalize results over the population from which the sample was taken. Data under this research is quantitative and invariably require the use of a statistical test into establishing the validity of relationships (Easterby-Smith et al., 2015). An explanatory research survey may for instance examine the contributing factors to customer satisfaction and determine the relative weight of each factor, or perhaps seek to model the variables that lead to shopping cart abandonment

(Bazeley & Jackson, 2014).

5.5.4 Predicative research

The predicative research goes beyond the explanatory. Whereas explanatory researches try to forecast the probability of a situation occurring elsewhere, the predicative research given this same situation will try to establish an explanation for current happenings (Eriksson & Kovalaine, 2008). After data analysis, researchers here will then move to generalize by predicting certain phenomena on the basis of hypothesized, general relationships so that the solution to a problem can be applied to similar problems elsewhere (Oates, 2014). This argument holds if the predicative research can provide a valid, robust solution based on a clear understanding of relevant causes. Predicative research provides the ‘how’, ‘why’ and ‘where’ answers to current and similar future events.

Carefully scrutinizing the main features of the different research types discussed above helps in understanding the major reasons why several of these researches are conducted. Classified as an exploratory research, this project initially commences with a comprehensive literature review to fully understand the subject area. Next, is interacting with experts within the field of educational technologies. Individual case studies were undertaken from Ghanaian higher education. The outcome would typically seek to create hypothesis on the usage of educational technologies in Ghanaian universities.

5.5.6 Applied vs. Basic research

According to Collis and Hussey (2014), the standard classification of research outcome divides projects into basic and applied research. As a result, the outcome of this study will undergo some classifications.

Applied research is a study that has been designed to apply its findings into solving specific, existing problems. It is the application of existing knowledge to improve management practices and policies. This type of research is likely to be a short-term project (often less than six months) and its capability of solving real world problems is of more importance than just academic theorizing (Saunders et al., 2014). For example, you might be investigating the recognition of an office layout, the improvement of safety in

the workplace or the reduction of wastage of raw materials or energy in a factory process. The results from this type of research could possibly be akin to a consultant’s report, an article in a professional/trade magazines or even presentations to practitioners.

However, basic research or pure research is a type of research usually conducted when a prevailing problem is of a less magnitude, mainly because its primary objective is to improve our understanding of general issues without emphasis on its immediate application (Collis & Hussey, 2014). It is regarded as the most academia for research projects, as the major aim is to contribute to knowledge, usually for the general good rather than solve a specific problem for perhaps, one organization. For instance, one may be interested to know whether personal characteristics influence people’s career choices. Basic research is exploratory in nature and is often driven by the researcher’s curiosity and intuition.

Distinguishing between the above two, we conclude this research study is a basic research. It does not set out to encourage the use of educational technologies in Ghanaian universities; instead, the researcher at this time is only curios about exploring the type of educational technologies used in these universities and how competent the students and tutors are in their learning and teaching deliveries using educational technologies. It is a basic research also because it is an academia form of research; in that it must be submitted to the University of Salford in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

5. 6. STAGE 4: Research Approaches

There are two different approaches to research namely, deductive and inductive research. Generally, a deductive research proceeds from theory to data (theory, method, data, and findings). It entails the development of a conceptual and theoretical structure prior to its testing through empirical observation (Gill and Johnson, 2010). While providing insight to deductive research, Remenyi et al. (1998) recalls that the researcher in this approach may have deduced a new theory by analysing and then synthesizing ideas and concepts already present in the literature.

Emphasis in this type of research is to deduce ideas or facts from the new theory in the hope that it provides a better or more coherent framework than preceding theories. However, by taking a slightly different perspective, Gill and Johnson (2010) argue that what is important is the logic in deducing coupled with the operational process and how these will engage the consequent testing of the theory by confronting it with the empirical world. Deduction research, according to Collis and Hussey (2014), is the dominant approach in the natural sciences where laws form the basis of explanation, allow the anticipation of phenomena, predict their occurrence and thus permit them to be controlled. Accordingly, Patton (2000) set up five sequential stages of progression to deductive research:

 Deducing a hypothesis from the theory

 Expressing the hypothesis in operational terms  Testing the operational hypothesis

 Examining the specific outcome of the inquiry  If necessary, modifying the theory

Conversely, inductive research proceeds rather from data to theory (method, data, findings, and theory). Within the inductive approach, theory follows data rather than data following theory as with the deductive approach. Gill and Johnson (2010) explain that learning is done, by reflecting upon past experiences and the formulation of abstract concepts and theories. By implication, Kuhn (1962) suggests that deductive researchers are enslaved normal scientists, while inductive researchers are paradigm-breaking revolutionaries (Glaser and Strauss, 2006). Although the debate between supporters of both induction and deduction have a long history, Gill and Johnson (2010) claim that modern justification for taking an inductive approach in the social sciences tends to revolve around two related arguments:

 The explanation of social phenomena grounded in observation and experience  Critique of some of the philosophical assumption embraced by positivism

For many researchers working within the inductive tradition, explanations to social phenomena are relatively worthless unless they are grounded in observation and experience. Grounded theory is a concept developed by Glaser and Strauss (2006, p. 45), which they define as ‘an inductive, theory discovery methodology that allows the researcher to develop a theoretical account of the general features of a topic while simultaneously grounding the account in empirical observations or evidence’. In attempting to develop a grounded theory, the researcher will approach the enquiry with a reasonably open mind as to the kind of theory that will form the research (Remenyi et al., 1998).

This particular research seeks to explore and understand the adoption of educational technologies in Ghanaian universities. An inductive approach is therefore necessary and a sufficient approach. It does not intend to test any particular theory, but rather, its findings would be made in a form of a theory to guide and explain the reasons for the use or avoidance of educational technologies in the Ghanaian Universities.