Research Question 2: How do stakeholders perceive that the Business Simulation Course at Payap University allows students to apply their knowledge in practice?
The effectiveness of the transfer of learning from theory to practice in the business simulation course, is a key aspect of this research. The focus of this section is the transfer of theory into practice, which is an experiential learning method (Adams, 1973; Barnett & Hallam, 1999; Cudworth, 1995; Knowles, 1990; Kolb, 1984). Some literature relevant to this process is summarised briefly below in Table 2.5.
Table 2-5: Overview of some of the literature relevant to the transfer of learning: from theory to practice
Author (Year) Title Major Focus
Andresen, Boud & Cohen (2000)
Experience-based Learning Experiential learning is a powerful
tool for enabling students to practise their theory.
Knowles (1984, 1990)
The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species
The resource of greatest value in adult education is the learner's experience
Kolb (1984) Experiential Learning: Experience as
the Source of Learning and Development
Knowledge results from the combination of grasping experience and transforming it and learning is the process whereby knowledge is constructed through experience
2.2.1 Transfer of Learning: From Theory to Practice
The literature reviewed here shows clearly that theoretical knowledge of the type that might be acquired in a lecture situation can be transformed to practical understandings through means such as simulations. This study, at RQ 2, tests this broad claim in the BSC case.
According to Knowles (1990), the transfer of knowledge and principles to novel situations can mirror the ways in which interaction occurs between learners and their
environment. He stated further that it is an effective alternative learning method, to learn by initiating problem-solving or 'getting the students into the situation' in a highly realistic manner (pp. 75-76). The transfer of learning occurs when students use their theoretical knowledge to inform their performance.
As described in section 2.1.1, simulated learning is experiential (Kolb, 1984). Transferring theoretical knowledge into practice develops business students' understanding and enables them to apply their knowledge to 'real-life' business practice. There are a number of definitions of learning by doing, or experiential learning. For example, Kolb (cited in Peterson, 1989), described experiential learning as a process of learning, rather than the outcome of learning. As Kolb (1984) stated, 'Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience' (p. 38). Experiential learning is the process whereby students analyse their experience by reflecting, evaluating and reconstructing their experience, both individually and collectively (Andresen et al., 2000). Similarly, McGill and Weil (1989) portrayed experiential learning as 'self-managed, by individuals and groups, or facilitated by trainers or change agents outside post-school education' (p. 248).
Boud (1988) argued that the features of experiential learning include autonomous learning and that it may be less controllable and more context-related than traditional learning. These characteristics make it an important area for the development of ideas which can be applied in more conventional settings.
According to Andresen et al., (2000), experiential methods have been a powerful tool for enabling professionals to acknowledge students' position in their practice. They reported that there are several forms of experiential learning used in vocational and professional education, such as: internships, on-the-job training, workshops, case study approaches and simulations (p. 233). Through such experiences, the opportunities for students to combine theory with practice are mutually constructed and co-operative learning demonstrates the benefits of students working with others in collective learning efforts (Livingston & Stoll, cited in Cudworth, 1995). The course should focus on students' learning needs and include theory and practice, to develop desired outcomes.
Business simulation learning is described as the experience of students in embedding business skills in simulated business environments. Students are required to apply theoretical knowledge or textbook principles, in a context where practical skills, problem-solving, working co-operatively and social skills also are required (Knowles, 1980, 1990; Marsh & Willis, 2003). Knowles claimed further that the experience of adult learners includes simulated learning, skill-practise exercises, group discussion and community development.
2.2.2 Alternative Approaches to Curriculum Construction: Applying Theory in Practice
As the BSC attempts to equip students to work in a 'real' business world, the literature reviewed in this section includes research into curriculum issues related to practice-based courses such as the BSC. Some literature relevant to curriculum issues which are related to applying theoretical knowledge to practice is summarised in Table 2-6.
Table 2-6: Overview of some of the literature relevant to issues in practice-based curricula
Author (Year) Title Major Focus
Brady & Kennedy (1988)
Curriculum Construction Learning by doing is an effective
strategy in a real world business context
Marsh & Willis (2003)
Curriculum: Alternative Approaches, Ongoing Issues
An effective curriculum is when students combine theory with practice Ornstein &
Hunkins (1998)
Curriculum: Foundations, Principles, and Issues
Practical approaches allow students to apply theory to the working world
The UNESCO World Conference on Higher Education (1998) encouraged apprenticeship/work study opportunities for students and the revision of curricula to align them more closely with work practices. This was seen as a way to strengthen the world of work, through co-operation with higher education institutions. Additionally, job-related technical skills such as communication, teamwork, problem-solving and practical business skills also are needed in curricula, in order to produce qualified students who are capable of competing in the job market and who can function effectively in the globalisation era (Ministry of University Affairs, 2000).
The Long Term Plan in Higher Education, in use in Thailand since the late 1980s, argued that the current style of higher education was not suitable to produce quality graduates. It was argued that using a teacher-centred approach produced students who lacked the ability to think creatively, solve problems and use their knowledge in appropriate and adaptive ways (Standen & Herrington, 1997; The Committee of Thai Education, 1996).
Curriculum development models are able to provide realistic and detailed particulars of curricula in action (Marsh & Willis, 2003). These models are influenced by the view of knowledge and reality as a dynamic, emerging phenomenon, where self and others interact in real world contexts. Ornstein and Hunkins (1998) argued that:
By practice, we mean the procedures, methods, and skills that apply to the working world, where a person is on the job or actively involved in his or her profession. These procedures and methods are teachable and can be applied in different situations (p. 21).
There is a considerable body of literature supporting the design of curricula based on 'learning by practising' (Buchanan et al., 2002; Colwill & Birchall, 1992; Fullan, 2001; Kolb, 1984; McGill & Beaty, 1995). However, strategic change needs to be reflected in curriculum design and performance measurement systems, in terms of the learning outcomes of graduates (Selen, 2001). To reflect this reality, curriculum development models require more than acknowledgement of the connection between theory and practice. It is also necessary that when students apply their theoretical knowledge in practice, their outcomes should be able to be considered as successful or as effective in a real business environment.
According to Brady and Kennedy (1998), in the business field 'learning by doing' is an effective way of teaching students to manage a business in a real-life environment, to solve problems in an organisation, to manage risk and to minimise the gap between theoretical knowledge and practice. They reported that 'Business people see the curriculum as the means by which students gain the requisite knowledge and skills to make them productive workers' (p. 5). Therefore, the curriculum should be developed with regard to the relevance of the concepts used to the practice of business, or the effectiveness of the pedagogy in the preparation of students to become business people (Brady & Kennedy, 1998; Milter & Stinson, 1995; Stinson & Milter, 1996).