2.2 Numerical summaries and box plots
2.2.3 Standard deviation as a measure of spread
*Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract
The morphological characteristics of Tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.) fruits from two agro-ecological zones (Northern Guinea savanna zone and Sudan savanna zone) of Kano State were investigated. The two agro-ecological zones differ in terms of agro-climatic and soil conditions. The aim was to examine the variation in morphological characteristics of Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) pods in the two different agro-ecological zones. A total of 480 pods (12 pods from each 20 sampled trees) were collected and analyzed. The pods were measured for morphological parameters (length, breadth, number of seeds) and pulp quantity. Means for each parameter were computed and two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out using SPSS to determine if there were differences between agro-ecological zones. The results show that pods from Doguwa L.G.A (Northern Guinea savanna Zone) were significantly (P<0.005) longer, larger in width, and heavier than those from Dambatta L.G.A (Sudan Savanna Zone). There were more seeds per pod in the samples from Northern Guinea savanna Zone than Sudan Savanna Zone. The differences between agro-ecological zones are a reflection of the different agro-climatic and soil conditions of Kano State. These morphological differences expressed in genetic variations will be very useful for promoting domestication, utilization and commercialization of Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) in Kano State and Northern Nigeria.
Key words: Morphology, Pods, Tamarindus indica, agro-ecological zones.
Introduction
Tamarind (Tamarindus indica L., Caesalpiniaceae, also placed in Fabaceae) is a multifunctional drought-tolerant fruit tree providing food, medicine and other services to many rural African communities (Van der Stege et al. 2011). Tamarind belongs to the dicotyledonous family Leguminosae which is the third largest family of flowering plants with a total of 727 genera recognized and the number of species is estimated at 19,327 (Lewis et al., 2005). Tamarind grows wild in the drier parts of tropical Africa, where it is probably native.
It has now spread to Africa, India, and tropical Asia, as well as South America, the West Indies, and major islands in the Indian Ocean (Diallo et al, 2007). Tamarindus indica commonly known as tamarind is a multipurpose long-lived tree best known for its fruit. It is indigenous to tropical Africa and exotic to Asia and Central America. India and Thailand are the major tamarind world
producers, generating 300 000 and 140 000 tons annually, respectively (Yahia & Salih 2011). In the Americas, Costa Rica has become quite a large producer of tamarind with production of 220 tons annually, other American countries such as Mexico (37 tons) and Puerto Rico (23 tons), produce much smaller quantities (Gunasena, 2000). Africa on the whole does not produce tamarind on a commercial scale, though it is widely used by the local people.
Minor producing countries in Africa are Senegal, Gambia, Kenya, Tanzania and Zambia (El-Siddig et al., 2006). In Nigeria especially northern part, it is recognized as an important indigenous fruit tree valued mostly for its products especially fruits (pulp), which is used for a wide variety of domestic and industrial purposes. It does well in most northern states like Kano, Katsina, Jigawa, Borno, Yobe, Sokoto, Kebbi, Zamfara and Bauchi states.
Tamarind has been reported to have an array of multipurpose uses. A survey by FAO, (1998)
167 on harvesting and marketing of edible products from local woody species in Zitenga, Burkina Faso revealed that tamarind products used for home consumption ranked number one among the indigenous species studied. Van der Stege et al. (2011) explored the importance of Tamarind in traditional diets of rural communities in Benin, Mali, and Senegal.
Tamarind adds vitamins and minerals, as well as its distinctive sour taste, to drinks and meals.
It is consumed daily and year-round by many rural West Africans. Van der Stege et al. (2011) includes detailed descriptions of Tamarind processing and traditional meal preparations of Tamarind fruits, seeds, flowers, and leaves Tamarind seeds contain 63% starch, 16%
protein, and 5.5% fat. They can be eaten as a pulse, but Tamarind is better known for the pod pulp, which constitutes around 40% of the pod.
The pulp, which is rich in vitamin C and contains tartaric, malic, and citric acids as well as sugars, has a sweet-sour flavor and is used in drinks, sweetmeats, curries, and chutneys. It is an essential ingredient in Worcestershire sauce.
The fruit pulp is the richest known natural source of tartaric acid (8 to 18%) and is the main acidulant (i.e., food additive used to increase tartness or acidity) used in the preparation of foods in India (Shankaracharya 1998). Tamarind pulp is rich in protein (around 8%); it has a crude fat content of around 1% and carbohydrate content around 56% (Amoo et al., 2012).
Though it has been identified as one of the major agroforestry tree species to be prioritized for future crop in sub-Saharan Africa (Akinnifesi et al., 2008), Tamarindus indica is genetically diverse, as reflected primarily in the variability of its fruits in terms of size and taste (sweet or acidic pulp (Schabel, 2004). Apart from having differences among fruit types in the different continents, a subspecies with red fruit (Tamarindus indica spp. rhodocarpa) occurs in India (Parrotta, 1990). According to NRC (2008), the adaptability of Tamarindus
indica to various climatic zones and environmental conditions is the key factor contributing to its importance in the tropics. No studies however, evaluated the relationship between the characteristics of Tamarindus indica pods and seeds from different agro-ecological zones in Kano State. Whereas Tamarindus indica occurs in different agro-ecological zones of the state, it is not clear whether the populations have phenotypic, genotypic or nutritional differences. This study aimed at investigating the morphological characteristics of Tamarindus indica fruits from two different ecological zones (Sudan savannah zone and the Guinea savannah zone) in the State. The objective was to determine the morphological characteristics of Tamarindus indica pods from the two different ecological zones. A study conducted by Nagarajan et al.
(1997) suggested that fruit morphological characters are selection criteria for the identification of superior trees. As such ascertaining information on morphological characteristics of Tamarindus indica fruits in Kano State would be useful partly in promoting the consumption, domestication, protection, commercialization and development of the local industries for indigenous fruit trees.
Materials and Methods Study Area
The study area is located between Latitudes 12o25’59” N and 11o22’50” N of Equator and Longitude 8o30’55” of the Prime meridian (Mohammed et al. 2015). It falls within Sudan Savannah Zone in the northern part; and Northern Guinea Savannah Zone in the southern part. Rainfall decreases from the southern part of the state to the northern part and floristic composition follows that pattern, as posited by Shado, (2001). Rainfall in this region varies from 1087.50 – 1162.50mm per annum in the southern part to 637.50 – 712.50 mm in the northern part (Fig.1).
168 Adapted from: Adnan et al., 2010
The rainy season lasts from about 6 months (May to October) in the southern part to as low as 4 months (June to September) in the northern part (Ati et al., 2009). The mean annual temperature in the study area ranges from 26ºC to 32ºC, with the high diurnal temperature ranges of 13.1ºC and relative humidity of 17%
- 90% (Olofin, 1987).
The zone has well drained sandy soils. The vegetation of the zone is mainly composed of Sudan Savanna with trees of smaller size hardly above 20m scattered over an expense of grass land.
Data collection
For the purpose of this study, data were derived primarily from fieldwork which involved collection of fruits and measurement of fruit characteristic such as: Number of pods per bunch, Pod size (length and Width), pod
weight, Pulp yield /content per pod, Number of seeds per pod, Seeds size (length and diameter), Seed weight. Fresh and ripe fruits of Tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.) were collected from twenty (20) mother trees in each of the study sites.
Sampling methods
Each zone was stratified into two major land use types (i.e crop fields and fallows). The crop fields were current farms of agricultural crops while the fallows were former fields that had not been cultivated for at least a period of five years prior to the study. Twelve sites, with Tamarind trees were selected (six towns per each ecological zone and covering 4 - 5 km2).
A total of 20 trees were selected from each study sites. Five trees with fruits were selected from each land use type in each town to determine whether there is different between land use types. Selection criteria includes ease of access (Okello, 2010), good tree health
169 (absence of obvious signs of disease and fire), and presence of fruits (pods). The sample trees were located about 50 meters apart (trees close to each other were not selected as they were considered to be having similar origin / genetic characteristics).
The pods were collected during the fruit harvesting season (September to December).
The canopy of each sample tree was divided into three levels: top, middle and bottom and 4 pods were collected from each level making a total of 12 pods per tree. The trees were climbed using ladders to collect ripe pods (selected by gently squeezing). Ripe pods were considered to be those with scurfy brown, woody, fragile shell with brown pulp and blackish-brown, and hard shiny seeds (Hernandez-Unzon and Lakshminarayana, 1982).
In total, 12 pods were harvested from each tree following the method of Jøker (2000). A total of 240 pods were therefore, harvested from 20 trees per land use type, giving 480 pods per zone. Pods collected from each tree were pooled, kept in white polythene bags and labelled according to tree number and canopy level (T1S1, T1S2, and T1S3). The pods were taken to the laboratory at Audu Bako College of Agriculture Dambatta, Kano for various measurements.
Measurement of Morphological Characteristics of Pods and Seeds
The pods were washed with distilled water and allowed to dry for one hour after which the following parameters were determined: length (cm), Width (cm), individual pod total weight (g), seed weight (g), Pulp yield /content per pod (g) and number of seeds per pod. Length of pod was determined as the distance from the panicle to the end of pod on the outer surface (measured with the help of a thread and a plastic ruler due to shape of some pods). Breadth of pod was determined by taking an average of the two breadth measurements using a Vernier calliper.
Pulp yield /content per pod were obtained by weighing the pulp using an electric weighing scale (Mettler digital analytical balance with 0.1mg readability) to 99% accuracy after removing the seeds. To determine seed weight, seeds (manually removed from the pod) were counted and weighed. Depulping of pods was done using a pair of scissors and a razor blade.
Data Analyses
Data collected from the field were analyzed as follows: Each of the pod and seed samples was aggregated by land use type (i.e crop fields and fallows) and agro-ecological zone. The means for each parameter were computed and analyzed. Two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out (using SPSS version 10.0 for windows) to test differences in morphological characteristics of pods between agro-ecological zones and land uses. The least significant difference (LSD) in a post hoc test was used to separate means using the general linear model for post hoc multiple comparisons of observed means.
Results
Morphological Characteristics of Tamarindus indica according to Agro-ecological Zones of the study Area
The disaggregated data for the different Ecological zones of Kano State shows that there were differences in morphological characteristics across the two different Ecological zones. The minimum, maximum, mean, standard deviation and standard error shows significant difference across the two agro-ecological zones (Table 1). The samples from Sudan Savanna Zone (Dambatta LGA) had the lowest pod length value (1.2 cm) while Northern Guinea Savanna Zone (Doguwa LGA) had highest value (29.80 cm). The mean and standard deviations were also highest at Northern Guinea Savanna Zone (15.12±2.07).
170
Table 1. Fruit Morphological Characteristics of Tamarindus indica According to Agro-ecological Zone
*SSZ (Sudan Savanna Zone); NGSZ (Northern Guinea Savanna Zone) Fruit Morphological Characteristics of
Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) between two Agro-ecological zones of Kano State.
Results indicated high significant differences in fruit morphology in the two studied areas
(Table 2). Sudan Savanna Zone had the lowest pod length, width, seed number per pod, pod mass, seed mass and pulp mass (g) compared to Northern Guinea Savanna Zone which has highest value.
Table 2. Fruit characteristics of Tamarindus. indica in the two different Agro-ecological Zones of Kano State
Fruit Characteristics Lowest SSZ
Mean± SD Highest NGSZ
SE Pod Length (cm) 1.2 11.69±3.12 29.80 0.058 Pod Width (cm) 1.1 1.88±0.27 7.05 0.005 Total Pod Mass (g) 1.43 13.70±6.31 56.84 0.118 Total Seed No. 1.00 6.02±2.80 17.00 0.052 Total Seed Mass (g) 0.07 3.84±2.21 17.05 0.041 Pulp Mass (g) 0.05 5.05±2.70 22.04 0.050 Source: Field work
Morphological Characteristics of Tamarindus indica Pods and Seeds
There were substantial differences in morphological characteristics of Tamarindus indica pods and seeds between agro-ecological zones and land use types (Table 2 & 3). Overall, all morphological characteristics showed significant differences between agro-ecological zones. Length and breadth of pods as well as
pulp yield /content per pod were significantly different between land use types. The samples from Northern Guinea Savanna Zone (NGSZ) had higher mean values than the samples from Sudan Savanna Zone (SSZ). Additionally, there is insignificant differences between samples from the fallow and samples collected from the on farms (P<0.005).
Variables Lowest Mean± SD Highest SE
SSZ NGSZ SSZ NGSZ SSZ NGSZ SSZ NGSZ
Pod Length 1.20 12.90 8.38±1.28 15.12±2.07 10.20 29.80 0.04 0.07 Pod Width 1.10 1.25 1.98±0.30 1.870.±0.20 7.05 2.70 0.01 0.01 Total Pod Mass 1.43 1.97 14.30±7.35 13.17±5.29 56.84 32.48 0.24 0.17 Total Seed No. 1.00 1.00 5.59±2.81 6.53±2.78 15.00 14.00 0.09 0.09 Total Seed Mass 0.07 0.20 4.22±2.53 3.88±2.09 17.05 12.16 0.08 0.07 Pulp Mass 0.05 0.27 4.58±2.84 5.24±2.42 22.04 15.81 0.09 0.08
171
Table 3 Characteristics of Tamarindus indica from the different Agro-ecological Zones of Kano State
Characteristics of Pods and Seeds Morphological Main Factors Agro-ecological Zone Land use
SSZ NGSZ Fallows Crop fields
Pod Length (cm) 11.7a 10.9b 12.0a 11.4b
Pod Width (cm) 2.0 a 1.8 b 1.9a 1.8b
Total Pod Mass (g) 14.3 a 13.6 b 13.8a 13.6a
Total Seed No. 5.6 a 6.0 b 5.9a 6.1a
Total Seed Mass (g) 4.2 a 3.4 b 3.8a 3.9a
Average Seed Mass (g) 0.8 a 0.6 b 0.6a 0.6a
Pulp Mass (g) 4.6 a 5.3 b 5.2a 4.9b
In general, the differences in values of morphological characteristics of pods and seeds between land use types in different agro-ecological zones showed that the samples from the Northern Guinea Savanna Zone had higher values compared to Sudan Savanna Zone.
Discussion
The differences in mean width of pod, pod weight, total seed number and total seed weight by both agro-ecological zones indicates the influence of agro-ecological zones and land use types on morphological characteristics. The observations could be due to substantial effects of the environmental factors and land use factors (Okello, 2010; El-Siddig et al., 2006;
Haynes et al., 2006). The Northern Guinea
Savanna Zone had higher morphological values than other zone probably due to the agro-ecological zones and the soil factors. In addition, Northern guinea savanna zone, receives highest rainfall than Sudan Savanna Zone (Table 4), which encourages the production of longer and wider pods. Studies by Chiteva and Kituyi (2006) reported that Tamarindus indica pods in different agro-ecological zones had different mineral contents and different fruit ripening time showing an influence of the agro-ecological factors.
Different Ecological zones studied have different environmental factors (Table 4) such as rainfall patterns, soils types and formation, major geological formation, temperatures and vegetation types.
Table 4. Summary of Key Characteristics of the Districts from which Tamarindus indica Fruits were sampled
Parameter Sudan Savanna Zone Northern Guinea Savanna Zone
Location Lat.12o25’59”N
Long. 8o30’55”E Lat. 11° 22' 50" N Long.8o30’55”E
Rainfall regime Unimodal Unimodal
Rainfall (mm) <1000 900-1110
Temperature (°C) 24-43 25-39
Relative humidity (%) Soil
18-99 31-98
Climate type Hydromorphic, soils well drained and lithosols
Ferruginous with variable fertility
Tropical Tropical
Source: IITA
172 Conclusion
From the results obtained in this research, it has shown that differences were observed among morphological characteristics of Tamarindus indica fruits from the two different Ecological zones in the study Area. These differences resulted from differences in agro-climatic and soil conditions. The samples from Northern Guinea Savanna Zone recorded higher morphological characteristic values than the samples from Sudan Savanna Zone.
Recommendations
In view of this finding, it is therefore recommended that:
1. Considering the multiple uses of Tamarindus indica further research work, both in the field and laboratory is very essential especially on other useful characteristics such as variations in colour, flowering, fruit setting and production across the study area so that domestication can be enhanced.
2. Research is urgently needed to fully develop and utilize the enormous potentials of Tamarind for Agroforestry practices in the Savanna region of Nigeria. This is very important now that Agroforestry is being looked upon as a solution to rural development needs in the whole of Sub-saharan Africa.
3. The Universities, Research Institutes and Colleges of Forestry should collaborate with Federal and States Forestry Departments to study its growth rate in comparison to exotics for use as afforestation species.
4. For high fruit and pulp yields to aid raw material procurement for industrial purposes and for seed collection and propagation, Tamarind trees from Doguwa Local Government should be recommended.
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174
ANALYSIS OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE ADOPTION OF N2Africa GRAIN LEGUMES TECHNOLOGY IN KANO STATE NIGERIA
*Halliru M. and *Mustapha A.
*Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Bayero University, Kano Correspondent author: Halliru_M. [email protected] 07034525410
Abstract
The study analyzed socio-economic factors that influence adoption of N2Africa grain legumes technology in Kano State, Nigeria. A multi-stage sampling technique was used for the study. Primary data were collected through the use of structured questionnaire. 150 farmers were sampled from project intervention area for the purpose of this research. The analytical tools employed include descriptive statistics and binary logistic regression. Descriptive statistics revealed that majority of the farmers are male, married and inheritance is the means of land acquisition among legume farmers.
Legume farmers in the study area are within their active age which is an element of sustainability in the legume enterprise. Logit regression result revealed that household size, annual income, farming experience and educational status are the factors that influence adoption of grain legumes technology.
Certain constraints militating against adoption of grain legumes includes attack of pest and diseases, drought problems. It is therefore recommended that farmers should be encouraged to produce legume through special and adequate training on legumes production techniques including efficient utilization of labour and other resources as well as proper disease and pest management. Planting of drought resistance legume varieties is also essential among grain legume farmers in the study area. Dialogue between gain legumes farmers and pastoralist should be promoted to resolve the existing complicit in the affected areas. Market identification before production is also important among grain legume farmers.
Key words: Adoption, Legumes, Technology, N2Africa and Kano Introduction
The agricultural research systems are generally responsible for generating and developing innovations for increasing agricultural productivity. Technology development and transfer play a crucial role in attaining the main goal to increase agricultural output, productivity and farmers’ income. Adoption of recommended technologies implies that technologies are relevant to the farmers' circumstances. If farmers become aware of technologies or modifications in the use of resources that are relevant to their circumstances and can improve their farm production and thus their welfare, they will most likely adopt these changes (World Bank, 2011).
Bello, Dauda and Okwu. (2011) conducted a study focused on the factors influencing the adoption of farming technologies among farmers in Jenkwe Development Area (JDA) of Nasarawa State of Nigeria. The results showed significant negative relationship between
adoption and number of farm plots and farm size positively significant correlation with years of farming experience and farm income.
Haji (2003) examined the adoption of crossbred dairy cows in Arsi zone using Logistic regression model to identify factors affecting farm households’ adoption decision of crossbred dairy cows. Formal education, total local livestock holding, the distance between farmers’ residence and market, family size, total cultivated area, access to credit, access to artificial insemination, access to bull service, farmer’s leadership position in local farmers’
organization and extension contact were found to be significant variables in the adoption decision of crossbred dairy cows.
Adoption of legumes contribute substantially to sustain crop production through their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen, some of which is left behind in the soil after harvesting for subsequent crops to utilize. Increased legumes production from intensified cropping system can play a key role in income generation in
175 West Africa because of their multiple uses and fodder in human and animal diet. Legume is an important staple food and cheap protein source to rural and urban dwellers with the demand for the commodity increasing in the nation.
Legumes therefore have a tremendous potential to contribute to the alleviation of malnutrition specifically amongst the poor. One of the critical problems hindering improvement in productivities of legumes is the traditional practices of cropping systems used by majority of the farmers as well as poor linkage to inputs and output markets.
The broad objective of the study is to analyze socio-economic factors that influence adoption of N2Africa grain legumes technology in Kano State. However, the specific objectives of the study are to:
1. Describe socioeconomic characteristics of the grain legume farmers in the study area 2. Determine the socioeconomic factors
influencing adoption of N2Africa grain legumes technology.
3. Describe the constraints militating adoption of N2Africa grain legumes technology.
Methodology Study Area
The study area covers Kano State located in the north-western part of the Nigeria. Kano State has coverage of 44 Local Government and the state share boarder with Jigawa, Kaduna, Bauchi, and Katsina state respectively. Kano State was created in 1967 and lies between latitude 100 33’ and 120 37’ North of the equator and longitudes 70 43’ and 90 35’ East of Greenwich. The estimated population of Kano in 2011 was 11,058,300 people (NPC, 2006).
Kano State lies in the tropical wet and dry climate zone. The mean rainfall is about 1000mm in the southern part of the state, 800mm around metropolitan Kano and about 600mm in the north-east. The rainy season usually covers the months of April – October.
Sampling Procedure
Multi-stage sampling techniques were used for this research. The study considers ten (10) local governments purposefully where N2Africa Phase 1 project was introduced. Specifically, fifty percent (50%) of the local government
areas were selected giving a total of five (5) Local Governments Areas from the project area. Two participating communities were randomly considered from each local government giving a total of ten (10) communities from the intervention areas. Three (3) participating farmer groups were also randomly considered from the communities and thus thirty (30) farmer groups were considered from the intervention areas. Finally, five (5) farmers were randomly considered from each of the participating group and this give a total of 150 farmers as sample size from the project areas.
Analytical tools
Descriptive statistics and binary logistic regression were used for data analysis. The models are specified below:
Arithmetic Mean: this is the set of scores divided by the total number of the observation.
Mean is written mathematically as:
X = ∑Xi=X1 X2 X3 + ……….XN ……….(1) n n
Where;
X = Arithmetic mean
∑ = Summation
XI = Individual observation I = 1, 2, 3……….n
Percentage: This was employed to determine the population of farmers to a particular response. Percentage is written mathematically as:
Percentage (%) = X x 100 ……….(2) n
Where;
% = percentage
X = Individual observation N = Total observation Binary Logistic Regression
The dependent variable for logit regression is binary taking a value of 1 and 0 for adopters and non-adopters of legumes production. This eventually expressed itself as:
Yi = β0 + β1 X1 + U………....(3)
The logistic cumulative probability function can be expressed as: