We haven’t found any written sources on the Spanish flags of the era, although numerous illustrations exist.
The principal source [which Jean Belaubre has well documented in his study "Les Triomphes de Louis XIV"] comes from the collection of the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris, where the flags taken from the enemies during the wars of Louis XIV are represented.
The problem is that it is very difficult to attribute the flags to a specific unit because there the name of the unit from which it was taken is not written next to the drawing.
Jean Belaubre attempted to attribute them on the basis of the knowledge he had of the orders of battle, made more complicated because the tercios were often known only by the names of the officers commanding and there was a certain turn-over amongst the mestres de camp (passing from one tercio to another as a function of their seniority) and the Count of Clonard (the only available source for the period) doesn’t always give enough information to reconstruct the changes which took place.
During recent years, Luis Sorando Muzás and Antonio Manzano in Spain have made painstaking research into the ancient (and modern) Spanish flags.
The current state of research allows us to conclude that in all the Spanish infantry tercios the flags always had a (red) Burgundian cross in the middle and often reaching from one corner to the other. The field was, in most cases, divided into geometrical elements (squares, triangles, etc.) of various colours (with the dominance of green, white, blue and yellow), sometimes with a border also consisting of geometric elements (squares or triangles).
Milanese tercios originating from militia had particular colours; the colonel had a red field with a central white cross (instead of being white with a red cross as we would have expected on the basis of today’s arms of the City), some of the others with waving bands of yellow and black or blue, or white and blue (as can be derived from a painting of 1702 and from the representations of those taken by the French at Orbassano [Marsaille]). The colonel’s flag of one Milanese tercio carried in the middle a Madonna framed with laurel branches160 and has been till now attributed to a Bavarian unit, because it closely resembled a Bavarian colour.
Walloon and Flemish tercios had generally three white colours with a red Burgundy cross in the centre.
Swiss formations had almost certainly flamed flags of several colours with a central white cross (similar to those of the Swiss in the service of Savoy and France) and, lacking more precise information sufficient to assign them, we are not able to relate the French trophies to their particular regiments.
German regiments in the Milanese army had colours with a Burgundy cross that could be yellow or red upon which there was an Imperial eagle, so as to denote the origin of the unit; in the center there were the Royal arms of Spain with a royal crown at the top. It is very likely also, that the German regiments in the Catalan army had colours similar to those.
Foreign corps that were temporarily brought into service for the State of Milan (Württemberg and Bavaria) or with the army of Flanders, and later also in Catalonia, generally kept the flags of their princes.
Cavalry colours were square and generally their field was red with a Burgundy cross, red or silver or even golden. Most likely units of Guards had on the reverse face the arms of the owner of the company.
The colours captured by the French from the Spaniards during the wars and on the different fronts were publicly displayed in Paris and exhibited in the Cathedral of Nôtre Dame. Some unknown painters have represented a good number of them and their work is kept at the Bibliothéque Nationale in Paris. On this basis we can therefore present some of these colours, even though we are seldom able to assign one of them to a definite unit.
160 Mercure Galant Oct. 1693
Campaigns
Catalonia
The principle objective of the French manoeuvres during the whole war on the front of Catalonia was the conquest of Barcelona and of the main lands of the Principality, besides which, this threat immobilised a significant number of troops which might otherwise have found deployment on other fronts, particularly in Flanders.
The Spanish corps available was almost always comparable in size to the not vastly superior French army but a great part of it was immobilised in garrisons because the initiative was always with the French who made use of their superiority in artillery and cavalry as well as an incontestable supremacy at sea which allowed them to threaten the coastal cities at short notice and land troops behind the backs of their opponents. This volume of firepower exceeded enormously what the Spaniards could bring to bear.
A great concern that held the Spanish Generals back from an offensive attitude was that if the army underwent a major defeat in the field, there would not be another sizeable force in the whole of Spain that could stop the enemies from reaching Madrid.
A different temper was demonstrated by the Catalan people and also because of errors the French made in treating the conquered territory. The people rose up in arms and hindered the march of the enemy troops, representing for a good portion of the duration of the war the major cause of disturbance and grave losses to the enemy troops.
On the contrary from other fronts in Europe, as was the case of Flanders and Northern Italy, on the front of Catalonia the concentration of the troops on both sides were always small, and most of the years the war developed according to the classic parameters of a frontier war.
The development of the military operations in Catalonia during the War of the League of Augsburg were characterised by several recurring features. Due to the nature of the country and the dispositions of the forces there was a preference for sieges instead of operations in open country and a major part of the activity consisted of continued guerrilla operations. Towns succumbed alternatively to the besiegers of the one side and then to the other as occurred at Gerona, Castelfollit, Roses, and at Barcelona.
Year 1689
France entrusted to the duke of Noailles161 the direction of military operations on the Catalan border.
Hostilities opened in Catalonia in May 1689 when a French army under the Duke of Noailles invaded the territory of the Spanish crown from the border of Roussillon. The Royal Spanish army was commanded by the reigning Viceroy, the Duke of Villahermosa, and he set out to face the enemy. The first action of the French consisted in laying siege to the place of Camprodón the 19th of May, the place, defended only by 125 regular soldiers and 200 irregulars, capitulated to the French the 23rd of May. The governor of its castle, don Diego Rodado, was accused of treason and hanged in a square of Barcelona by the Viceroy Duke of Villahermosa162. The movements of the Spanish were hindered by the fact that they had to defend the places of Gerona and Barcelona with significant garrisons because of the threat represented by the French fleet against which the Spanish had no effective answer (a situation which lasted for the duration of the war).
Only at the end of June could the viceroy dispose of 4,000 foot and 2,000 horse to employ in field operations. Once the danger of an invasion by the French was acknowledged, the Principality raised people for its defence, and the Court sent reinforcements of troops under the command of the marquis of Conflans.
Once gathered together the twenty thousand men of the army Villahermosa decided to recover the place of Camprodón. Noailles hurried to its relief, but neither desired to engage in a field battle, only cannonading each other. The place was abandoned by the French the night between 25th and 26th of August, not without blowing up the two fortresses before leaving.
161 Anne Jules, count of Ayen, duke of Noailles, born in 1650, died in 1708. Between 1689 and 1694 commanded the French troops on the front of Catalonia.
162 Carlos de Gurrea Aragón y Borja, duke of Villahermosa. Viceroy of Catalonia between 1688 and 1690.
Year 1690
In this year there were no actions of relevance, the duke of Noailles limiting himself to the pursuit of the squads of miquelets that disturbed French movements in the mountains163; to empower himself of some fortified positions and of San Juan de las Abadesas (capture of the tercio de la Diputacion maestro de campo Joan de Marimon IRSP12) and of Ripoll in May; to raise a redoubt on the mount that was between Camprodon and the Ampurdan; and to harvest the plane of Vich to mantain his troops at the expense of the Catalans.
Year 1691
This year there was a tentative offensive advance of the Spanish into the French Cerdanya towards Mont Louis; the duke of Medina Sidonia164 replaced Villahermosa as Viceroy of Catalonia. When he took possession of his charge the French had just started to besiege the town of Urgel with 7,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalry, defended by about 1,000 men (among them the tercio of Madrid –IRSP05- and that of Burgos –IRSP02-), which, notwithstanding the efforts of its governor don José de Agullo, surrendered the 12th of June, the entire garrison becoming prisoner of war. Noailles fortified Bellver, where Medina Sidonia arrived the 15th of August, but in consideration of the advancement of the works of Noailles, the Spaniards marched to the East in order to set siege to Prats de Mollo, ending the siege soon because the French were at their rear. At the same time a corps of French troops at the orders of Chaseron succeded in reaching the neighbourhood of the same town of Barcelona.
This same year a French squadron of 40 sails, under the orders of Count de Estrées, showed-up in front of the harbour of Barcelona, bombing the city for two days (the tenth and the eleventh of July), although with little damage. Afterwards they sailed towards Alicante, where they shelled once more the town, until the Spanish fleet of Count de Aguilar was discovered.
Year 1692
French operations concentrated in Flanders; this implied a reduction of the forces in Catalonia and Piedmont. Spaniards entrenched at Pont de Molins. Medina Sidonia did not show himself very active during the campaign of this year, leaving Noailles able to camp and move freely in the Principality even if the French counted on very inferior resources. Louis XIV ordered Noailles to transfer part of his battalions to the army of the Marshal of Catinat in the Delphinate. Medina-Sidonia fortified the pass of Le Pertus, and with his army descended to Moreillas in the Rosellon; Noailles, who was regrouping his troops at Le Boulou, turned around the Spaniards, making it difficult to forage, and obliged them to withdraw. Following this the French entered Catalonia by la Junquera, while the Spaniards entrenched at Figueras. At this moment the orders of Louis XIV arrived asking for the transfer of the battalions, there not being any other action worth mentioning during the rest of the campaign. Armies faced each other with continuous encounters among patrols and cavalry and ambushes by the miquelets against French convoys.
Year 1693
Louis XIV ordered intensification of the activities in Catalonia with the objective of taking the town of Roses. The Marshall of Noailles laid siege to the town the first of June, protected by the squadron of Count d’Estrées (35 galleys), moved for this purpose from the harbour of Toulon. The place was defended by about 1,400 infantry and 200 dragoons with 15 pieces of artillery in bad shape, with very bad conditions of the defensive works. Facing the impossibility of receiving reinforcements from the duke of Medina Sidonia, the place surrendered the 13th of the same month. The French started also the siege of Gerona, after that the fall of Roses, opened on 10th June, then the opening of the breach and the death of the governor. At the end of July a cavalry battle forced San Jordì with losses to the French. After this Noailles adopted a defensive attitude, having to transfer 5 battalions and 12 squadrons to Marshal of Catinat’s army in Piedmont, returned to its original bases and prepared for winter quarters.
Year 1694
The army of Catalonia was reinforced by the new provincial tercios raised in Spain, but the majority of the soldiers were completely inexperienced. The Court replaced the Viceroy, the Duke of Medina Sidonia, with
163 From the Catalan Miquelet. Name that in the principality of Catalonia received the mountain fusiliers (fusileros de montaña), a term that came into use for designating the men of volunteers corps raised in war time. They derived their name from one of their first chiefs : Miquelot de Prats.
164 Juan Alonso Pérez de Guzmán, duke of Medina Sidonia. Viceroy of Catalonia between 1690 and 1693.
the duke of Escalona, who did not show more resolution than the former. Noailles had entered Ampurdan the 17th of May with an army of 20,000 infantry and 6,000 horse, similar in number to the Spanish. The French camped between Berges and Toroella de Montgri, at the mouth of the river Ter, not far from Gerona.
There the Duque de Escalona rushed to face them, followed by almost all of the units of the field army with an excessive confidence in his newly recruited troops. On 27th May the veteran French Marshal made his forces ford the river and, falling upon the Spanish new recruits, defeated them completely. Three thousand men were lost, all the tents and the baggage; all this happened the 27th of May and it is known as the battle at the river Ter.
Two days after his victory, the 29th of May, the French laid siege to Palamos both by sea and by land. The twelve vessels of the squadron of the Marshal de Tournville blocked any relief. The fortress was defended by a small force of 3,000 men. The breach was opened in the walls on 5th June, on the 10th the fortress had to surrender (among the defenders the Tercio de la Costa de Granada – IRSP08 - distinguished itself). The governor had to capitulate the 10th of June, 3,000 men more remaining prisoners of war.
The 17th of June Noailles invested the town of Gerona, surrendered over to the French by Carlos Sucre the 29th of the same month. The garrison was allowed to retire to Aragon under parole of not taking part in any war operations for the rest of the year. Louis XIV rewarded the successes of Noailles naming him Viceroy of Catalonia, of which charge he took possession with great pomp and ceremonies the 9th of July.
A generalized panic caught Escalona and his troops, a situation from which the French profited by attacking Hostalrich the 18 of July, the castle of Corbera and investing Castellfollit the 4th of September, the town was surrendered the 8th of September. The town of Hostalrich had to surrender after the powder magazine was blown up by a cannonball. From this position the French were able to press forward to within 4 miles of Barcelona. Rising popular resistance to the French and on the other hand the actions of the Catalan guerrillas became more intense forcing the French to strongly protect their own convoys. At the end of September the Spanish in their turn attacked Hostalrique but the pressure from the French from Castelfollit forced them to desist.
Year 1695
During the winter and in the early months of the year the guerrilla activities of the Catalans against the French patrols and convoys intensified and became a cause of losses the French could not ignore. As an example in a skirmish with miquelets and peasant militia near Sant Esteve (in the area of Castelfollit) on the first of March the French lost good 500 men in an ambush and 500 others (killed, wounded and prisoners) in the following pursuit. The repetition of such events caused the French to abandon several minor garrisons.
On the 19th of May an expedition of 8,000 French infantry and 3,000 cavalry succeeded in bringing help to Hostalrique which had been besieged in a leisurely way by the Spaniards. On its return the column was attacked by the Spanish cavalry. The Spaniards thereafter put Castelfollit under siege. The strongplace was then demolished and, soon after, that of Hostalrique too, and a large part of the force reached Gerona.
The court of Madrid, faced with the constant requests of troops by Escalona, and the complaints about the feeble help he received from the Catalans, decided to substitute him by sending to Barcelona as Viceroy the Marquis of Gastañaga. The new viceroy did not expose his regular troops, entrusting the defence of the principality to peasants and miquelets, who turned to their custom of hostility without mercy to the French, intercepting and taking his convoys, eliminating his stragglers, taking some small fortifications, and formally blockading Castelfollit and Hostalrich, forcing the French to demolish their fortifications in order to avoid them falling into the hands of the miquelets who could use them as a defense against them.
In the course of the year the Prince George of Hessen-Darmstadt, brother of the Queen, arrived in the Principality with a large number of German, Irish and Walloon reinforcements, and clashed with the Viceroy and the main military commanders. In August there came a combined operation with the allied fleet (Anglo-Dutch, which had been present in the Mediterranean since 1695, blocking the maritime actions of the French) and the Spanish army was to attempt to force the place of Palamos. Two English infantry regiments and one Dutch infantry regiment participated in the operation, disembarking from the allied fleet. After a few combats the fleet abandoned the operation and the siege was ended without conquering the place.
Anyway, at the end of the campaign the French also razed this place.
The duke of Noailles retired to France, ill and laden with glory, was substituted in the command of the troops by the duke of Vendôme165.
165 Louis Joseph, duke of Vendôme, de Mercoeur, de Estampes, Penthievre, pair of France, prince of Martingues, knight of the orders of the King and of the Golden Fleece, senescal major, governor of Provence, and general of the galleys, son of Louis duc de Vendôme and Laura Mancini. Born in the year 1654, and died at Vinaroz 11th June 1712.
The marquis of Gastañaga, notwithstanding the reinforcements received, and the support of the allied fleet under the orders of Admiral Russell, was unable to recover Palamos. He achieved only that Vendôme demolished his fortifications and retired to Gerona. The only result for the Spaniards this year was the recovery of Hostalrich.
Year 1696
This year there were no major actions, besides multiple encounters and skirmishes, in which the Spaniards
This year there were no major actions, besides multiple encounters and skirmishes, in which the Spaniards