TRADITIONS AND INNOVATIONS OF ARCHITECTURE IN SOUTHERN SHAN
IV. Structural Innovations of the Main Hall at the Lower Monastery
While the monastery layout of Guangsheng Monastery basically followed the old traditions of the Song and Jin, innovations were introduced to the beam frameworks of timber buildings, as exemplified by the main hall at the Lower Monastery. There is evidence that officials and craftsmen from the capital were involved in the construction of Yongle Palace. At Guangsheng Monastery, however, a state-registered monastery with local eminence, at least the surviving architecture of the subsidiary temple (the Lower Monastery of today) is believed to be constructed by local craftsmen. It is revealed by the features of the main hall that a style peculiar to the region of Southern Shanxi was developed among the Yuan-period buildings reconstructed after the Great Earthquake of 1303.133
According to an inscription written on one of the ridge purlins of the central bay, the construction of the main hall, completed in the autumn of 1309, less than six years after the disastrous earthquake:
“The time is the eighth day of the second half of autumn in Zhida 2 (1309) of the Great Yuan…reconstructed.
Zijiang134… Zhuang Cheng, Fu Qi from the county of Hongtong respectively recorded.”
峕大元至大貳年季秋下旬有捌日修造□□□□□□□□□重建。
梓匠洪洞縣□□莊成、付器謹志。135
Three small stairs lead to the front of the main hall, in contrast to the high and elaborate platform in front of Sanqing Hall at Yongle Palace (Figure 2.12). The hall is rectangular in plan, seven bays wide and eight rafters deep, covered by an overhanging gable roof with one tier of
133 Chai Zejun believes the main hall is most representative because of the regional characteristic and
innovative techniques it carries. See Chai Zejun. 2006: 30.
134 Craftsmen in carpentry, with expertise in the constructions of timber buildings.
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eaves. A total of eight exterior columns stand across the front and back of the hall, defining seven bays. In the front, doors were placed for the three bays in the middle and lattice windows for the two side-bays on either side of the hall. In the front, there is an absence of windows and back doors. The bracketing at the hall is only five-puzuo. No intercolumnar bracket sets are placed across the building façades. The roof, bracketing and platform of the main hall indicate humbleness, a sharp contrast to the architecture of Yongle Palace.136 The humbleness is consistent with the status of the Lower Monastery – a subsidiary temple of Guangsheng Monastery - in the late Yuan Dynasty. It might be due to the need for quick restoration in the aftermath of the Great Earthquake. It might also be explained by regionalism. As per the inscriptions from the purlin, the craftsmen came from Hongtong, the county nearby. There is no doubt that local craftsmen were responsible for constructing the buildings of the Lower Monastery.
Basically, the construction of the main hall also followed the modular design of caifen. The single standard unit of the graded timber corresponds to the standard dimension of the fourth grade stipulated in Yingzao fashi. According to the Song practices, the fourth grade should be used for three-bay diantang or five-bay tingtang structures. It is obviously too small for a seven- bay hall like the main hall. Similar to that of Yongle Palace, the standardized timbers are also reduced by two grades.
The beam framework is exposed to view as no ceiling was installed, known as cheshangluming徹上露明. As a matter of fact, most of the large structural members were roughly processed, a period characteristic of the time. The beam framework was initially designed as one of the tingtang structures: an eight-rafter construction with a two-rafter beam in both the front and the back, with four columns. In the middle, the timber frame had beams that spanned four rafter lengths, above which a king post and inverted V-shaped truss supported the roof purlins. In the tingtang structure of this type, normally it should have two interior colonnades with six columns each. However, both jianzhu減柱 (column elimination) and yizhu移柱 (column
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displacement) were employed. Four columns of the interior front row for the two side-bays on each side were eliminated. The central five bays of the interior back row use three lengthwise frameworks, a one-bay-wide one in the center and a one-and-a-half-bay-wide one on each side, thus omitting two interior columns that would have been positioned at the outside of the side bays. Among the remaining four columns, the innermost columns on the left and right side remain unchanged. However, the other two remaining columns, the side bay columns, are shifted sideways onto the midpoint of the flanking side bays. They are neither positioned at the bay axes nor aligned with the front and rear eaves columns (Figure 2.13).
Because of the downgraded standardized timbers, most structural members of the main hall have downscaled sizes. However, Liang Sicheng was surprised by the “enormous ang”
employed in the framework.137 This “enormous ang” referred to by Liang is not the cantilever used for bracketing. It is an ascending beam (also known as slanting beam) employed to enhance the stability of the beam framework. Slanting beam and massive architrave form a combination, which is rarely seen on the buildings in other regions of the Yuan period.
At the main hall of Guangsheng Monastery, slanting beams were employed in all bays across the facade. In the central bay, for instance, slanting beam is installed atop two two-rafter beams to sustain a four-rafter beam above them (Figure 2.14). In all other bays, slanting beams replace the two-rafter beams, with one end atop of the tail of bracket set and the other end atop the interior architrave (Figure 2.15). With an aim to support the transverse roof construction above, a massive architrave, 11.5 meters long, is employed in all bays but the central bay on the front and back rows of interior columns. Moreover, a second layer of architrave known as you’e 由額 is used beneath the massive architrave for additional support.
The earliest extant lengthwise framework is Jin tingtang construction represented by Manjusri Hall at Foguang Monastery佛光寺 on Wutai Mountain. The hall was constructed in
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1137. Since lengthwise construction was already a mature technology when Manjusri Hall was built, Fu Xinian believe, the framework may belong to a local building tradition from the Northern Song that continued in the Jin Dynasty.138 The south hall at Yanshan Monastery in Fanshi County and Amitabha Hall at Chongfu Monastery in Shuozhou, both dated to the first half of fifteenth century, use the same construction method. Unsurprisingly, Yuan architecture continues to use lengthwise construction with column omission and displacement. Because the structure is so widely used in the early fourteenth century in the region of Southern Shanxi, one can talk about a regional style.139 The main hall of the Lower Monastery is the earliest and most representative example.
Other examples include the main hall at Pujing Monastery普淨寺 in Xiangfen, the main hall at Shousheng Monastery壽聖寺and the back hall at Baitai Monastery in Xinjiang, the main hall at Huayan Monastery in Hongtong, and many others. Figure 2.16 provides the plans of some of the buildings investigated during my research. Among buildings of this style, the main hall at Qingliang Monastery清涼寺 in Ruicheng County offers one of the best comparable examples. The monastery was founded sometime before 1242, shortly after the establishment of the Mongol rule in Southern Shanxi. In the monastery compound, the main hall is the only surviving building from the Yuan period.
The main hall is elevated on a platform, about two meters high, with a yuetai月臺 (moon- platform) in front of it. It is rectangular in plan, five bays wide and eight rafters deep, with one tier of eaves topped by an overhanging gable roof. Inside of the hall, no ceiling was installed; most of the structural members were roughly processed. Both massive architraves and slanting beams were employed, aiming at enhanced structural stability and enlarged interior space.
138 For detailed analysis of the lengthwise framework employed at Manjusri Hall, see Fu Xinian. 2002b: 267-
72.
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The early history of Qingliang Monastery was recorded by seven Yuan steles that are still preserved in the monastery compound. Two of them are most interesting because the
inscriptions were written in a special language known as Yuan baihua白話 (Mongolian Chinese). One stele reads:
“With blessings from emperor Güyük140, his highness Chahan is giving the following command. Monk Liaowu from Qingliang Monastery of the county Ruicheng, sub- prefecture of Hai, has personally accused the military personnel and official envoys of seizing land and valuables from the monastery and harassing monks for food and drink, which caused a lot of disturbances. Because of this, this command is given in
accordance with the imperial edict which forbids officials from appropriating land and estates of monasteries, snatching horses, demolishing monasteries and occupying them to accommodate the envoys. Why didn’t you people obey the edict of emperor? Buddhist monks are responsible for blessing emperor Güyük, and his consorts, crown princes, kings and concubines for longer lives. Why did you people disobey the will of emperors and render the monks unable to live peacefully? Therefore, I am
commanding you to return all estates and properties seized from this monastery. In the future, those who harass the monks will be reported to this authority. For us all,
disobeying the edict of the emperor is a big crime and will be heavily punished. This command must be enforced and shall not be violated.
From Huairen County of Western Capital, on the fifteenth day of the ninth lunar month, in the year of wushen (1248).”
貴由皇帝福蔭裡，茶罕官人言語。據解州芮城縣穀底坡頭清涼寺僧了悟，口告本處軍馬及 往來使客人等，強行爭占田土，及奪要物色，取索飲食，搔擾不安。為此道與本處軍馬頭 目人等，照得皇帝聖旨節該：寺院田土，諸人不得爭占，亦不得拆毀房舍，及不得扯拽頭 匹，安下使客。明有這般皇帝聖旨，你每如何故不遵奉。這僧人每系是與貴由皇帝、皇 后、太子、諸王、諸妃祝延聖壽之人，你每如何別了皇帝聖旨，將僧人每這般不令安穩住 坐。據強佔田土及奪訖頭口物色，依數歸還與者。如有似前將本寺田土爭占，及取要物 色，強索飲食，將這僧人似前不安搔擾之人，寫了姓名，俺每根底說將來呵，俺每不照依 皇帝聖旨扎撒，不要大罪過那甚麼，這言語不得別了。准此。 戊申年九月十五日，西京懷仁縣南下處行。
Another stele records an edict sent from Dadu in 1310 by Ayurbarwada, who would be enthroned as emperor in the next year. This edict is similar to the one that was sent in 1248, both of which aim at protecting the properties of Qingliang Monastery from infringement. The inscriptions of the steles at Qingliang Monastery reveal the following historical information. Firstly, besides Tibetan Lamaseries, Han Chinese Buddhist monasteries located in the provinces were also protected by
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the Mongol rulers. Secondly, the edict of Ayurbarwada indicates that many of the monasteries of local eminence in Southern Shanxi had good connections with the Mongol elites living in Dadu. Guangsheng Monastery could be another well-connected monastery at that time. Unfortunately, most Yuan-period steles of Guangsheng Monastery were lost. The question why the monastery had been served as a shrine for Khubilai remains to be answered.
Concluding notes:
The construction of Yongle Palace started in the 1250s, decades before the proclamation of the Yuan Dynasty. As indicated by the architectural features of Yongle Palace, the old traditions of Song and Jin were followed because the new dynastic art had not yet started to form. From the date of its foundation in the middle of the eighth century to the end of the Yuan, Guangsheng Monastery had always been a guansi官寺 (official established monastery, or state monastery)141. Under the rules of the Mongols, the monastery was even more eminent because it was at the same time served as a shrine for Khubilai. Shortly after the earthquake destruction in 1303, Guangsheng Monastery was fully restored for both monastery complexes atop the hill and at the foot of the hill. Although the monastery complex atop the hill was destroyed again when the Yuan Dynasty fell, the architecture and layout of the monastery can be reconstructed based on the architecture represented on the murals of Mingyingwang Hall.
Completed in 1324, the murals of Mingyingwang Hall were executed by craftsmen using duihua. On the upper right corner of the east wall is a landscape scene which, I believe, contains realistic depictions of Guangsheng Monastery standing on the top of the hill when the murals were executed. As indicated by the architectural reconstruction, a thirteen-storied pagoda dominates the monastery compound which is enclosed by corridors and side buildings. Besides the pagoda, three pavilions and three Buddha halls are placed along the main building line of the monastery. A gong-shaped plan is employed for the first and second hall near the north end of
141 Starting from the Tang Dynasty, there had been a distinction between guansi, large Buddhist monasteries
that were registered with the government, and smaller, privately maintained monasteries and chapels that escaped official notice. See Fu Xinian, eds. 2001: 472; Robinson, James. 2010: 46.
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the central axial line. All above-mentioned features indicate high architectural rank, which is consistent with the eminent position of Guangsheng Monastery under the regulations of Yuan construction.
Although the architectural details, especially the features of beam framework inside of the buildings, are impossible to be detected from the murals, the layout of the monastery as well as the form and appearance of the individual buildings can be reconstructed with high confidence. Surprisingly, in the early fourteenth century, decades after the proclamation of the Yuan Dynasty, the old traditions of Song and Jin architecture had been followed in the region of Southern Shanxi.
On the other hand, innovations were made on the beam frameworks of large halls
represented by the main hall of Guangsheng Monastery and a regional style was developed for the buildings reconstructed in the aftermath of the Great Earthquake of 1303. The buildings of this style are always in tingtang structure, and most of them have the following characteristics: rectangular plan, overhanging gable roof, lengthwise framework, combination of slanting beam and massive architrave, column omission and displacement, roughly processed timbers, downgraded standardized timbers and downscaled sizes of most structural members. Because of the simplification and downscaling, the construction saves time and materials. However, with an innovative design of lengthwise framework, the stability of the building is not compromised, and the interior space is enlarged as the result. This structural design meets the needs of quick and large-scale reconstruction in the aftermath of the Great Earthquake.