The model of action research proposed by Cunningham (1976) comprises a number of learning loops (Figure 14). The learning loops begin with the formulation of a plan, which is used as the basis for fact finding in the area of concern. The researcher reflects on the plan and how it was and was not useful for enquiry into the area of concern. The plan is reformulated on the basis of these reflections and the cycle is repeated.
In this research project, the plan consisted of how WASAN would be used in the area of concern. The two Findings chapters report some of the learning loops; however, they do not identify all of them. The different learning loops in this research project are identified in Table 4. The nature or context of the learning loop is described in more detail below. The relevant learning points are discussed in detail in the Findings chapters.
The first phase consisted of the researcher’s own time working within the organisation; this period of two years was akin to an ethnography (Van Maanen, 2011) where the culture of the organisation was studied along with the issues they face.
Findings from the ethnographic stage, and one of the key learning points, showed that Call Handlers felt that much of the wasted effort they put in was managing callers who they could not help; that is, the wastage was generated from
an upstream system. This gave the researcher a greater understanding of the area of concern. Next, the researcher conducted a review of the PSM literature; this was to identify the key features of PSMs and increased the researcher’s understanding of the framework of ideas underpinning PSMs, which would be explored in the project. The phase constituted the first learning loop, as it was the first iteration of WASAN at the UK Police Force. This is explored in greater detail in Chapter 4; however, the translation of WASAN into the context was not as predicted and as such several amendments were needed to the methodology.
Table 4 Learning loops of research project
Next, the researcher had the opportunity to interview three senior officers from the emergency contact centre from two police forces in Australia. Across the two forces, only three participants were interviewed for Stages A and B. As their views were individual, it was not practical to rank them in Stage C and there was no time for a higher authority to sign off as the researcher was only at each site for a few hours, nor was there access to more senior officers. The data collected from these interviews identified that the waste management hierarchy worked as a set of keywords in Stage B1. The fifth phase was an independent review from an expert who was external to the research project. The expert was a regulator who had
Phase Name Participants Description Learning
1 Ethnographic Study N/A Ethnographic study to understand theculture of the police force Increased understanding of problem situation,waste was generated upstream 2 Literature review N/A Review of PSMs to understand the
systemic elements of methodology
Greater understanding about underpinning framework of PSMs
3 Call Handler Pilot study 6 First use of WASAN focusing on the Call Handling System
Separation of Stage A and Stage B - source of waste
4 International Case 3 Use of WASAN with Call Handlers intwo police forces in Australia Use of waste management hierarcy as keywordsfor Stage B1 5 Independent Review 1 N/A methodology with expert regulatorIndependent review of WASAN Intangible waste of time agreed as focus forwaste reduction 6 Call Handler Case 15 Use of WASAN with Call Handlers inthe UK Police Force Data collection and analysis suitable for thecontext 7 Independent Review 2 N/A Second independent review of WASANmethodology with expert regulator Potential to analyse channels from upstreamand downstream systems 8 Switchboard Case 7 Use of WASAN with Switchboard in theUK Police Force
9 Crime Desk 7 Use of WASAN with Crime Desk in the UK Police Force
10 Crime Admin 6 Use of WASAN with Crime Admin in the UK Police Force
Identified systemic nature of waste production in a meta-system
experience in working with and developing WASAN. The second independent review was with the same expert regulator.
Not all of the phases could be considered full learning loops as they did not take action in A using M based on the assumptions of F. However, they did all contribute to the development and learning about all three of the required elements; therefore, they are relevant to be included here. For example, the literature review did not provide action in the area of concern, but understanding the existing literature base was critical to the researchers’ understanding of the framework which underpinned WASAN. The findings chapters focus on phases 3, 6, 8, 9, & 10, as they were the most interesting theoretically. They also most closely resembled the learning loops identified by Cunningham (1976)
Next, the chapter identifies how data was collected to build the WASAN models and aid the critical analysis of the defining philosophical, theoretical, and methodological features of PSMs.