The Structure of the Thesis and Synopsis of Chapters

This thesis is divided into six chapters, and each chapter is further subdivided into sections addressing different themes and arguments. Therefore, it is apposite to provide a structural outline of the chapters and the principal arguments and issues they addressed.

Chapter One, being the introductory chapter provides a background introduction to the thesis. It also highlights the significance of the research, the methodology, methods of data collection and analysis that underpinned the study. Equally, the chapter problematizes the Niger Delta and Niger Delta conflict and provides the structural outline and synopsis of the thesis chapters.

Chapter Two reviews some of the relevant theoretical, empirical and policy-related literature on amnesty and DDR in the context of the transition from an

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authoritarian to democratic dispensation and war to peace transition. The literature review is structured around the thematic debates in the DDR literature.

Furthermore, the approach to the literature review adopted is critical in nature, highlighting some of the apparent gaps and weaknesses in the debates. Also, the chapter sets the background for the analysis of the Niger Delta ADDR programme by signposting some of the theoretical and empirical arguments to be examined in subsequent chapters of the thesis.

Chapter Three critically examines the historical origins, dynamics and Nigerian State management of the Niger Delta conflict prior to the introduction of the ADDR programme. The chapter is divided into three parts, and the first part unpacks the conflict by advancing the thesis’s framework for explaining the conflict’s origin, its changing dynamics and how the Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta’s era of the conflict became the most violent phase. The second part of the chapter provides a periodisation of the conflict’s historical trajectory, while the third part analyses its management by the Nigerian State. In terms of contribution to knowledge and the existing literature on the conflict, the historical analysis of the conflict carried out in this chapter reveals that a substantial body of scholarly work located the conflict in decades of relative deprivation, poverty, environmental degradation and general underdevelopment etc. On the other hand, there are scholarly works that locate the conflict and its changing dynamics in the very nature and character of the Nigerian State. However, empirical and secondary evidence analysed in the chapter provided convincing theoretical corroboration and affirmation of the perspective that trace the conflict to the dysfunctional nature and character of the Nigerian rentier-neopatrimonial state.

The analysis revealed that grievances of marginalisation, relative deprivation, poverty and general underdevelopment that underlay the conflict are symptoms of the crisis and contradictions of a rentier and neopatrimonial state system that resulted in the Nigerian State failing in its core functions. Likewise, current literature on the political economy of armed conflict is replete with criticisms of Collier’s greed theory of conflict and feasibility hypothesis. However, despite the validity of these criticisms, secondary and empirical data analysed in the chapter has demonstrated that even though Collier’s greed theory of conflict and civil war feasibility hypothesis may not be a valid explanation for conflict onset, evidence adduced in this chapter corroborate the fact that their explanatory potency in

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terms of nuancing the dynamics of conflict cannot be underestimated or completely renounced.

Chapter Four is subdivided into three main sections. The first section examines the ADDR’s programme’s conceptualisation, negotiation and planning as well as implementation. Based on this examination, the second part highlights the challenges and problems that characterised the implementation process. The third section is the conclusion which summarises the main argument of the chapter. In terms of contribution to knowledge, existing DDR literature is bifurcated between those that argue for a minimalist or maximalist DDR. Those that advocate for a minimalist DDR insist that it should only aim at restoring security and stability in the aftermath of violent conflict. On the other hand, those that advocate for maximalist DDR argue that unless a DDR programme is framed as an opportunity for development that aims at addressing the underlying sources of conflict and the concomitant security challenges it produces; its potential to contribute to lasting peace will be minimal. Accordingly, empirical and secondary data analysed in this study corroborates and affirms the position of those that advocate for maximalist DDR. Similarly, the current literature reveals that DDR can be initiated through a comprehensive peace agreement (peace accord) as an outcome of negotiated settlement amongst the conflicting parties. It can also be initiated in the aftermath of absolute military defeat by the victorious party.

Alternatively, it can be initiated through ‘coercive disarmament’ as a form of peace enforcement. However, a modest knowledge discovery and contribution to the literature in the chapter is that the Niger Delta ADDR was achieved neither through negotiated settlement, the absolute military defeat of the militants by the Nigerian military nor was it a clear case of coercive disarmament. In contrast, empirical evidence analysed, revealed that it is best described as a pseudo-compellence negotiated settlement. A DDR negotiation process that simultaneously integrates the features of a negotiated settlement, military enforcement and monetary patronage as inducement. Hence it straddles peace enforcement and negotiated settlement. Thus, it represents an alternative way of negotiating DDR. Similarly, is the concept of executive amnesty, a not too common concept in the literature that emerged from the chapter. An executive amnesty represents an amnesty that was not a product of robust engagement with all the relevant stakeholders but more of a unilateral imposition by the state.

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Furthermore, the concept of purchased renunciation of militancywhich denotes buying the peace that emerged from the chapter represents another modest knowledge discovery. It means the commodification of peace; a situation whereby peace has become a commodity that can be purchased instead of nurturing.

Chapter Five examines the extent to which the ADDR programme succeeded in achieving its statutory objectives. The chapter is subdivided into two main sections, and the first section evaluates it as a security stabilisation programme while the second section examines it from the perspective of an all-inclusive DDR recommended by the TCND. The chapter also juxtaposes the implementation of the TCND’s recommendation with that of the maximalist DDR. The last section of the chapter summarises the main arguments of the chapter. In terms of contribution to knowledge and literature, the resort to amnesty in the peace process has been heavily criticised as rewarding impunity. Nonetheless, both empirical and secondary evidence examined in this study proved that irrespective of these criticisms, amnesty would continue to be relevant and a strong motivation in wooing combatants particularly those of second generation militias to disarm and remain committed to a peace process. Furthermore, the existing literature suggests that the success of a disarmament programme and its potential to contribute to peace depends on the quantity of weapons recovered. However, an interesting discovery in this study is the fact that oftentimes the immediate improvement in security is not the function of how many weapons are recovered but the symbolic significance of the exercise to the conflict parties and other stakeholders. In the same vein, this case study equally discovered that irrespective of how disastrously the disarmament programme was conducted, its confidence building potential was still notable. A significant contribution to knowledge and existing DDR literature that emerged from this chapter was concerning the focus of existing case studies of DDR in the literature. They focus on internationally driven DDR programmes which were implemented within the framework UN IDDRSs. However, this case study provides a unique contribution to knowledge because its represents a case of a nationally owned peacetime DDR programme undertaken by a dysfunctional rentier neopatrimonial state, which was designed and implemented based on the normative standard of a rentier neopatrimonial state. Thus, the neopatrimonial ethos and standard that informed the conduct of the DDR explained why the Nigerian State resorted to

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the use of patronage and exclusion. Targeting some selected top militant commanders with the manifest capacity to unleash violence and threaten the operations of MNOCs and flow of oil rents to the state to keep in check other less powerful commanders. The Niger Delta ADDR programme, therefore, represents a case of neopatrimonial DDR and hence a new conceptual addition to existing literature.

Chapter Six is the concluding chapter and demonstrates the extent to which the case study succeeded in answering its central research question. The chapter also highlights the study’s theoretical and policy contributions. It also suggests potential research question for future research on the Niger Delta.

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Review of Relevant Literature: Amnesty, Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration