Study 3

Study 1 found that basic need satisfaction was best modelled as a higher-order construct, indicated by the first-order constructs, autonomy, competence, and

relatedness. The higher order factor was found to positively predict prosocial behaviour in a student population. These findings were both replicated in a general population in Study 2. Additionally, basic need satisfaction was found to partially mediate the

relationship between community aspirations and prosocial behaviour. Study 3 sought to further investigate the two key research questions, exploring the role of basic need satisfaction in relation to general helping when modelled as a higher order construct. In addition, the effects of autonomous, controlled, and impersonal orientation on general helping were explored.

Gagné (2003) found that autonomous orientation positively predicted prosocial engagement and volunteer hours worked, and this relationship was partially mediated by basic need satisfaction. No research has directly explored the effects of controlled and impersonal orientation on prosocial behaviour. However, Pelletier, Dion, Tuson,

and Green-Demers (1999) found that people’s amotivation with regards recycling and other environmentally friendly behaviours could be attributed to people’s beliefs that they were incapable of carrying out the requisite behaviours, and that those behaviours would have little positive impact on the environment anyway. These beliefs have clear similarities to the more generalised impersonal orientation discussed above.

Based on the work of Gagné (2003), we expected autonomy orientation to positively predict basic need satisfaction and general helping, and for basic need satisfaction to partially mediate the relationship between autonomy orientation and helping. Theory and previous research would suggest that impersonal orientation would negatively predict both basic need satisfaction and general helping. Given that

controlled orientation has been found to positively predict competence and relatedness but negatively predict autonomy, it is not clear what the effect of controlled orientation on overall basic need satisfaction may be (Deci & Ryan, 2000, 2008b; Pelletier et al., 1999; Ryan & Deci, 2004). Over and above the relationships between the causality orientations and prosocial behaviour, we expected to find that basic need satisfaction would be best modelled as a higher order factor indicated by autonomy, competence, and relatedness, and that basic need satisfaction would positively predict prosocial behaviour.

4.5.1 Method

Participants and Procedure

Participants (total N = 235, 129 females) were members of the public, recruited via Facebook and email ‘snowballing’. They were given the option to enter a prize draw for £25. The difference in prize draw value from Study 1 was due to changes in the university’s ethical procedure. Participants completed the questionnaire online,

having first read an explanatory statement about the study which assured participants that their responses were voluntary and confidential. Contact details obtained in order to award the prize draws were kept separately from questionnaire data to ensure anonymity. Demographic details for participants can be found in Table 4.1.

Measures

Autonomy, relatedness, and competence satisfaction (ARC-S) scale. The ARC-S scale (L. G. Morgan et al., 2013), as described in Study 1, was used to measure satisfaction with autonomy (α = .81), competence (α = .65), and relatedness (α = .88).

Basic need satisfaction in general (BNS-G) scale. As in the previous studies, the BNS-G scale (Gagné, 2003) was included and used in supplementary analyses (see footnote 3).

General causality orientations scale (Deci & Ryan, 1985b). This scale assessed participants’ general motivation orientations, measuring the degree to which they tend to respond in ways that are autonomous (α = .77), controlled (α = .75), or impersonal (α = .85). Participants read 17 vignettes that reflect a range of social interactions and achievement situations. Participants rated the likelihood that they would respond in three different ways to each scenario on a 1 (very unlikely) to 7 (very likely) scale. The three responses reflect autonomous, controlled and impersonal orientations to each scenario. For example, participants were presented with the scenario, “You are embarking on a new career. The most important consideration is likely to be…” and responses, “Whether you can do the work without getting in over your head (impersonal),” “How interested you are in that kind of work (autonomy),” “Whether there are good possibilities for advancement (controlled).”

Engagement in prosocial behaviours in general. General helping was measured by the Self-Report Altruism scale (Rushton et al., 1981), as described in Study 1, α = .83.

Marlowe-Crowne social desirability scale: Short form B12. Social

desirability was measured with the 12-item MC-SDS (Reynolds, 1982), as described in Study 1, α = .66.

4.5.2 Results

Preliminary Analyses

Table 4.4 shows descriptive statistics of the measured variables. There were main effects of relationship status, F (5, 214) = 5.66, p < .001, and employment status, F (6, 213) = 3.06, p < .01, on general helping. Ethnicity was unrelated to general

helping. Gender was unrelated to any of the main variables, and employment status was unrelated to competence. However, there was a significant effect of employment status on autonomy F (6, 32.56) = 7.29, p < .001, and relatedness, F (6, 30.45) = 2.71, p < .05. Ethnicity and relationship status were unrelated to autonomy, competence, or

relatedness. Social desirability was positively related to general helping, autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Relationship status, employment status and social desirability were included as control variables in subsequent model testing.

Table 4.4

Descriptive statistics, Cronbach’s alphas and bivariate correlations among study variables, Study 3

M SD α 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Control Variables 1. Social desirability 6.69 2.61 .66 - 2. Employment status 2.45 2.08 - .04 - 3. Relationship status 2.62 1.10 - .20** .10 - Main variables 4. Autonomous orientation 6.06 0.52 .77 .33*** .26*** -.01 - 5. Controlled orientation 4.02 0.74 .75 -.30*** .09 -.06 -.13 - 6. Impersonal orientation 3.65 0.98 .85 -.31*** .12 -.01 -.33*** .32*** - 7. Autonomy 5.67 1.22 .81 .37*** .21*** .09 .42*** -.04 -.48*** - 8. Competence 4.95 1.15 .65 .51*** .11 .06 .44*** -.17* -.63*** .83*** - 9. Relatedness 5.87 1.06 .88 .49*** .17** .10 .46*** -.08 -.35*** .72*** .81*** - 10. General helping 3.11 0.53 .83 .15* .05 .17* .17** -.21** -.36*** .10 .23** .12 -

In this sample, of the three needs, only competence was significantly correlated with general helping. The three needs were highly correlated with each other. As expected, autonomous orientation was positively correlated and impersonal orientation was negatively correlated with all three needs. Controlled orientation was significantly negatively correlated with competence. Impersonal orientation was negatively

correlated with autonomous orientation and general helping, and positively correlated to controlled orientation. Controlled orientation was positively correlated with impersonal orientation and negatively correlated with general helping. Autonomous orientation was positively correlated with general helping.

Fit of the measurement model, comprising the main variables of interest (autonomy orientation, controlled orientation, impersonal orientation, autonomy, relatedness, and competence, and general helping) and the control variables (employment status, relationship status, and social desirability) was inspected. Employment status and relationship status were included as observed variables. The main variables were included as latent constructs. Autonomy, relatedness, and competence were indicated by their respective items. The three orientation variables, general helping, and social desirability were each indicated by three item parcels. Data screening showed data non-normality at the univariate and multivariate level. Therefore maximum likelihood parameter estimates with standard errors and a mean-adjusted chi- square statistic (SBS- χ²) were estimated.

Estimation of the measurement model showed adequate model fit, SBS- χ² (307) = 439.91, p < .001, CFI = .94, TLI = .93, RMSEA = .04, SRMR = .05. All factor loadings were significant (p < .001) and ranged in magnitude from .40 to .93 (mean λ = .76). The inter-correlations between autonomy, competence, and relatedness were extremely high in this sample (M ϕ = .79), supporting the inclusion of a higher order

basic need satisfaction factor. This was fitted to the model and the resulting model fit was adequate, SBS- χ² (321) = 465.58, p < .001, CFI = .94, TLI = .92, RMSEA = .05, SRMR = .06, although slightly worse than the previous model. However, overall the factor loadings were slightly improved, now ranging from .41 to .98 (mean λ = .75). Furthermore, second order factor loadings were high and significant (mean λ = .89) and the average variance extracted from the first-order need constructs was high (ρᵥ = .80). The results indicate that the observed variables related to their underlying latent

constructs in expected ways and that the residual variances related to one another as expected. In addition, the inclusion of a higher-order BNS factor gave similar model fit whilst avoiding potential problems with multicollinearity and suppressor effects that could arise if autonomy, competence, and relatedness were modelled separately. Justification for proceeding to test the hypothesised structural relations with a higher- order BNS factor was thus obtained.3

Effects of Basic Need Satisfaction and Causality Orientation on Helping A model was fitted to the data with direct paths from all three causality

orientations and basic need satisfaction to general helping. In addition, paths from each of the causality orientations to basic need satisfaction were fitted in order to be able to test for indirect effects. Of the control variables, only relationship status significantly predicted general helping, and therefore was the only control variable included in the

3 _{As in studies 1 and 2, the analyses were also carried out using Gagne’s (2003) BNS-G items, with}

autonomy, competence, and relatedness indicated by all 21-items, 16-items and an additional latent variable accounting for method effect, and the 11-items that were adapted to form the ARC-S scale. In all cases the model fit was poor, supporting the use of the ARC-S scale to measure basic need satisfaction in the main analyses. See Appendix R for details.

.99 .82 -.10 .86 _HelpingGeneral .77 .93 .65 GH_P1 GH_P2 GH_P3 -.43*** -.37*** Autonomous Orientation .63 .71.85 .71 AO_P1 AO_P2 AO_P3

.35*** .10 Basic Need Satisfaction .66 .83 .85 .84 .79 .88 .72 .53 .71 .71 .41 .81 .82 .82 Impersonal Orientation

IO_P1 IO_P2 IO_P3 Competence Satisfaction C1 C2 C3 C4 Autonomy Satisfaction A1 A2 A3 Relatedness Satisfaction R1 R2 R3 R4

Figure 4.3. Standardised parameter estimates for the structural model of relationships between causality orientations, basic need satisfaction, and helping. Note: ***p < .001.

structural analyses. The model fit was adequate, SBS- χ² (236) = 360.50, p < .001, CFI = .94, TLI = .93, RMSEA = .05, SRMR = .06. However, controlled orientation was not a significant predictor of either basic need satisfaction or general helping. In addition, basic need satisfaction was not a significant predictor of general helping. In order to achieve the most parsimonious model possible, the model was re-specified excluding controlled orientation (see Figure 4.3). The resulting model fit was good, SBS- χ² (178) = 249.64, p < .001, CFI = .96, TLI = .95, RMSEA = .04, SRMR = .06. Unexpectedly, basic need satisfaction remained a non-significant predictor of general helping in this sample (β = -.10, SE = .11, ns) when autonomous and impersonal orientations were also included as predictors. General helping was negatively significantly predicted by impersonal orientation (β = -.37, SE = .06, p < .001) but autonomous orientation was a non-significant predictor. Autonomous orientation positively predicted basic need satisfaction, (β = .35, SE = .06, p < .001), and impersonal orientation negatively predicted basic need satisfaction (β = -.43, SE = .06, p < .001). Given that basic need satisfaction did not significantly predict general helping in the full model, indirect effects were not tested. Overall 16% of the variance in general helping was explained.

Examination of the modification indices showed that the model would not be improved by fitting direct paths from autonomy, competence, or relatedness to general helping (all MIs < 2). A model was run, excluding causality orientations as predictors. This model had good fit, SBS- χ² (85) = 122.90, p < .01, CFI = .96, TLI = .96, RMSEA = .05, SRMR = .04, and basic need satisfaction positively predicted general helping (β = .15, SE = .08, p < .05). Again, model fit would not have been improved by fitting direct paths from the three needs to general helping (all MIs < 3).

Further Analyses

In order to demonstrate the potential for suppressor effects and model

misspecification when autonomy, competence, and relatedness are modelled separately, further analyses were carried out. The structural model shown in Figure 4.3 was tested without the higher-order BNS factor. The model fit was slightly better than the model with the higher order factor, SBS- χ² (169) = 229.84, p < .01, CFI = .97, TLI = .96, RMSEA = .04, SRMR = .05. However, autonomy now had a negative relationship with general helping that approached significance (β = -.29, SE = .16, p = .06). Competence and relatedness were both non-significant predictors. The change in valence from a non-significant positive correlation between autonomy and general helping to a negative parameter estimate approaching significance indicates a suppressor effect.

4.5.3 Discussion

The effect of basic need satisfaction on general helping was non-significant in this study when causality orientations were included in the analyses. As with studies 1 and 2, the model would not have been improved by fitting direct paths from autonomy,

competence, or relatedness to general helping. The results for causality orientations were in line with some expectations. Impersonal orientation negatively predicted both basic need satisfaction and general helping. Autonomous motivation positively predicted basic need satisfaction. Controlled orientation was unrelated to either basic need satisfaction or general helping. Contrary to Gagné’s (2003) finding, autonomous orientation did not significantly predict general helping, nor was basic need satisfaction a significant mediator of the relationship between autonomous orientation and general helping. Further analyses supported the inclusion of a higher-order BNS factor, a

suppressor effect arising when autonomy, competence, and relatedness were modelled separately without the higher-order factor.