adaptation, and context using simulation gaming
5.1 Suggestions for Further Research
The findings arising from this research point to several considerations for further mainstreaming-related research. Firstly, institutions are not necessarily inert, which is often cited as a barrier (Moser & Ekstrom, 2010) to climate adaptation insofar as space can be made available to reinterpret rules and for practitioners to exert a degree of agency. Secondly, the findings illustrate the contribution of understanding the deeper origins of potential barriers (Eisenack et al., 2014). By acknowledging that institutions are ontologically prior to individuals (Bell, 2011), and most certainly prior to the idea of mainstreaming adaptation to climate change, it is critical to develop a thick description of the institutional context in which policy actions are taking place. In the case of the Netherlands, a particular suite of historical and contemporary issues (ie the origins) informed the recommendations by the simulation game participants.
At this stage of planning practice in adapting to climate change, we are, arguably, in a phase of experimentation and searching. Berkhout et al (2006)
describe this as the ‘trial and error’ phase of learning. This concept relates to “... semi-automatic stimulus-responses processes and the, mainly tacit, accumulation of experience that occurs incrementally through the enactment of operating routines” (139). Our findings point to the role of individual tacit knowledge in defining the outer perimeter of rules, including space for alternative applications. Practitioners are, thus, currently on a ‘learning curve’ about what type of processes and combination of instruments are most likely to be effective. These choices are critical given policy instrument selection may enhance the mainstreaming process or, conversely, reinforce barriers (Eisenack et al., 2014).
As asserted in section 1, we predicated our research on the assumption that mainstreaming climate adaptation is a policy-process that is nested within complex interdependencies that need to be teased out and identified. Simulation gaming is a strategy that can be used to triangulate key variables and allow participants to ‘play’ with the institutional ‘rules of the game’ (North, 1990). Through the interactive format, the results provide a rich description about how participants learned about under what terms TIF would be acceptable and whether financing explicit adaptation investments using local income would be acceptable. Ultimately, mainstreaming climate adaptation is beyond the capacity of individual actors and requires broader organizational learning. Building more knowledge about the way in which policy- makers enforce or reinterpret existing rules may assist practitioners in the development of strategies that shift from trial and error into legitimate organizational routines (Berkhout et al., 2006). Further research in this area would benefit from the use of experiential methods such as simulation gaming, not least of which to allow practitioners to experience novel approaches without the fear of expending valuable personal and organizational resources, ranging from financial to political capital. Given the formative stage of adaptation policy-processes, we think it would be of research and practice interest to experiment13 with different institutional arrangements using simulation processes to garner insights about where possible spaces for institutional tailoring should be pursued. The aim would be to develop heuristic methods that could help practitioners determine whether the institutional conditions are receptive towards carving out a mainstreaming pathway or whether the policy train14 has arrived too early and with an ineffective arrangement of policy instruments.
13 Similarly, Termeer et al. (2011) note that conducting empirical research on climate adaptation is a challenge given adaptation policies and governance approaches “..are still in their infancy” (177). 14 We have reformulated a quote from Atkinson’s (2011): “if the train of policy change arrives too late it is
References
Alexander, E. (2000). Rationality Revisted: planning paradigms in a post-modernist perspective. Journal of
Planing Education and Research, 19(3), 242-256.
Alexander, E. R. ( 2012 ). Institutional Design for Value Capture and a Case: The Tel-Aviv Metropolitan Park.
International Planning Studies, 17(2).
Allers, M. (2011). Spending and Revenues of Subnational Governments in the Netherlands [Les depenses des collectivités locales aux Pays Bas]. Paris: Editions du Moniteur.
Allers, M. (2012). The Financing of Municipalities is Unnecessarily Complicated [De financiering van gemeenten is onnodig ingewikkeld]. Tijdschrift voor Overheidsfinancien 44(1), 38-57.
Allers, M., & Merkus, E. (2013) Soft Budget Constraint But No Moral Hazard? The Dutch Local Government Bail Out Puzzle. Groningen: Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Groningen.
Atkinson, M. (2011). Lindblom’s Lament: Incrementalism and the persistent pull of the status quo. Policy and
Science, 30(1), 9–18.
Bell, S. (2011). Do We Really Need a New ‘Constructivist Institutionalism’to Explain Institutional Change?
British Journal of Political Science, 41(4), 883-906.
Berkhout, F. (2012). Adaptation to Climate Change by Organizations. WIREs Clim Change, 3, 91-106. doi: 10.1002/wcc.154
Berkhout, F., Hertin, J., & Gann, D. (2006). Learning to Adapt: organisational adaptation to climate change impact Climatic Change, 78(1), 135-156.
Birkmann, J., Garschagen, M., & Setiadi, N. (2014). New Challenges for Adaptative Urban Governance in Highly Dynamic Environments: Revisiting planning systems and tools for adapttive and strategic planning. Urban Climate, 7, 115-133. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2014.01.006
Briffault, R. (2010). The Most Popular Tool: tax increment financing and the political economy of local government. The University of Chicago Law Review, 77(1), 65-95.
Buitelaar, E., Sorel, N., & Galle, M. (2014). The public planning of private planning: an analysis of controlled spontaneity in the Netherlands In D. Andersson & S. Moron (Eds.), Cities and Private Planning: Property
Rights, Entrepreneurship and Transaction Costs. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.
Bulkeley, H., & Betsill, M. (2013). Revisiting the Urban Politics of Climate Change. Environmental Politics, 22(1), 136-154.
Carter, J., Cavan, G., Connelly, A., Guy, S., Handley, J., & Kazmierczak, A. (2015). Climate Change and the City: Building capacity for urban adaptation. Progress in Planning, 95, 1-66. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. progress.2013.08011
Daré, W., & Barreteau, O. (2003). A Role-Playing Game in Irrigated System Negotiation: between play and reality. Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation, 6(3).
de Caluwe, L., Guerts, J., & Klienlugtenbelt, W. (2012). Gaming Research in Policy and Organization: an assessment from the Netherlands. Simulation & Gaming.
Delta Programme. (2014). Working on the Delta: the decisions to keep the Netherlands safe and liveable. The Hague. Deltaprogramma. (2010). Nieuw en Herstructurering: samvetting plan van aanpak [New Construction and
Reconstructing: summary, plan of approach]. Dutch Ministry of Infrastructure and the Environment and
the Ministry of Economic Affairs
Deltaprogramma. (2011). Knelpuntenanalyse: waterveiligheid en bouwen en klimaatadaptatie in de gebouwde
omgeving [Analysis of Constraints: water safety, buildings, and climate adaptation in the built environment].
Dutch Ministry of Infrastructure and the Environment and the Ministry of Economic Affairs
Deltaprogramma. (2012a). Delta Programme 2013: the road towards the Delta Decisions. Dutch Ministry of Infrastructure and the Environment and the Ministry of Economic Affairs.
Deltaprogramma. (2012b). Maatregelen van Nu: voorbereiding voor morgen [Measures from Now: preparing
for tomorrow]. Dutch Ministry of Infrastructure and the Environment and the Ministry of Economic Affairs.
Duke, R., & Geurts, J. (2004). Policy Games for Strategic Management. Amsterdam: Dutch University Press. ECORYS. (2010). Funding Resources from Regional Development and Zoning Changes: An exploration of the
possibilities of public income tax plan, bovenplanse settlement and expansion of the current cost recovery [Financieringsmiddelen uit gebiedsontwikkeling en bestemmingswijzigingen Een verkenning
van de publiekrechtelijke mogelijkheden van planbatenheffing, bovenplanse verevening en verruiming van het huidige kostenverhaal]. Rotterdam: Ministerie van VROM.
Eisenack, K., Moser, S., Hoffmann, E., Klein, R., Oberlack, C., Pechan, A., . . . Termeer, C. (2014). Explaining and Overcoming Barriers to Climate Change Adaptation. Nature Climate Change, 4, 867-872. doi: 10.10.1038/NCLIMATE2350
Hartmann, T., & Spit, T. (2015). Dilemmas of Involvement in Land Management: Comparing an active (Dutch) and a passive (German) approach. Land Use Policy, 42, 729-737. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. landusepol.2014.10.004
Heijkers, B., van der Velden, J., & Wassenberg , F. (2012). Report: The Future of Urban Renewal after 2014 [Toekomst van de stedelijke vernieuwing na 2014]: NICIS Institute & KEI.
Heurkens, E. (2012). Private Sector-Led Urban Development Projects: Management, Partnerships and Effects
in the Netherlands and the UK Delft: TU Delft.
Huitema, D., & Meijerink, S. (2010). Realizing Water Transitions: the role of policy entrepreneurs in water policy change. Ecology and Society, 15(2).
Janssen-Jansen, L. (2012). The Dutch office space tragedy: unlocking the lock-in. In T. Hartmann & B. Needham (Eds.), Planning by law and property rights reconsidered (pp. 189-205). Farnham: Ashgate. Keskitalo, E., Juhola, S., & Westerhoff, L. (2011). Climate Change as Governmentality: technologies of
government for adaptation in three European countries. Journal of Environmental Planning and
Management, 1(18).
Kingdon, J. (1993). How do issues get on public policy agendas Sociology and the Public Policy Agenda. (pp. 40-50). London: Sage.
Klabbers, J. (2006). A framework for artifact assessment and theory testing. Simulation & Gaming, 37(2), 155-173.
Klabbers, J. (2009). The Magic Circle: Principles of gaming and simulation (3rd ed.). Rotterdam: SensePublishers. Kornov, L., & Thissen, W. (2000). Rationality in Decision and Policy-Making: implications for strategic
environmental assessment. Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal, 18(3), 191-200.
Lefcoe, G. (2011). Competing for the Next Hundred Million Americans: The uses and abuses of tax increment financing Law and Economics Working Paper No. 120. Los Angeles, CA: University of Southern California Law School.
Lourenço, T., Rovisco, A., & Groot, A. (2014). Making Adaptation Decisions Under Uncertainty: Lessons from Theory and Practice. In T. Lourenço, A. Rovisco, A. Groot, C. Nilsson, H. Füssel, M. Van Bree & R. B. Street (Eds.), Adapting to an Uncertain Climate (pp. 139-162). Switerland: Springer International Publishing.
Lowndes, V. (2005). Something Old, Something New, Something Borrowed: how institutions change (and stay the same) in local governance. Political Studies, 26(3/4), 291-309.
Lowndes, V. (2009). New Institutionalism and Urban Politics. Edited book - Theories of Urban Politics - second
edition.
Lukosch, H., & Bekebrede, G. (2014). The Future of Gaming: Challenges for Designing Distributed Games. In D. Duke & W. Kriz (Eds.), Back to the Future of Gaming. Bielefeld: W. Bertelsmann Verlag.
Mahoney, J., & Thelen, K. (Eds.). (2010). Explainng Institutional Change: ambiguity, agency, and power. Mayer, I. (2009). The Gaming of Policy and the Politics of Gaming: A review. Simulation and Gaming, 40(6),
825–862.
Mayer, I., van Bueren, E., Bots, P., & van der Voort, H. (2005). Collaborative Decisionmaking for Sustainable Urban Renewal Projects: a simulation gaming approach. Environment and Planning B, 32(3), 403 ^ 423. McCarney, P., Blanco, H., Carmin, J., & Colley, M. (2011). Cities and Climate Change. In C. rosenzweig, W. Solecki, S. Hammer & S. Mehrotra (Eds.), Climate Change and Cities: First assessment report of the
urban climate change research network (pp. 249-269). Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
Measham, T., Preston, B., Smith, T., Brooke, C., Gorddard, R., Withycombe, G., & Morrison, C. (2011). Adapting to Climate Change through Local Municipal Planning: barriers and challenges. Mitigation and Adaption
Strategies for global Change, 16(8), 889-909.
Mees, H., Driessen, P., & Runhaar, H. (2012). Exploring the Scope of Public and Private Responsibilities for Climate Adaptation. Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning, 14(3), 305-330.
Meijer, S. (2009). The Organisation of Transactions: Studying Supply Networks Using Gaming
Ministry, o. I. A., VNG, & NEPROM. (2009). Reiswijzer Gebiedsontwikkeling een praktische routebeschrijving
voor marktpartijen en overheden [Area development Reiswijzer practical directions for market and government]. Den Hague: Ministerie van VROM.
Moser, S., & Ekstrom, J. (2010). A Framework to Diagnose Barriers to Climate Change Adaptation. Needham, B. (2007). Dutch Land Use Planning. Den Haag: Sdu Uitgevers.
North, D. (1990). Institutions, Institutional Change, and Economic Performance. New York. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Novak, J., & Canas, A. (2006). The Theory Underlying Concept Maps and How to Construct and Use Them. Os van, M. (2012). Using Gaming as a Data Collection Tool to Design rules for Agent-Based Models. Peters, V., Vissers, G., & Heijne, G. (1998). The Validity of Games. Simulation & Gaming, 29(20).
Peters, V., & Westelaken, v. d. (2014). Simulation Games: a concise introduction to the design process. In S. S. Simulaties (Ed.), Information on Simulation Games (pp. 1-58). Nijmegen.
Planbureau, v. d. L. (2014). Funding of Public Facilities in Organic Area Development [Bekostiging van publieke voorzieningen bij organische gebiedsontwikkeling]. The Hague.
Planbureau, v. d. L., & Urhahn, U. D. (2012a). Shaping the Spontaneous City: Barriers and opportunities for organic urban redevelopment [Vormgeven aan de Spontane Stad belemmeringen en kansen voor organische stedelijke herontwikkeling]. The Hague.
Planbureau, v. d. L., & Urhahn, U. D. (2012b). Shaping the Spontanious City: barriers and opportunities for organic urban redevelopment [Vormgeven aan de Spontane Stad belemmeringen en kansen voor organische stedelijke herontwikkeling]. The Hague.
Pricewaterhouse Cooper. (2008). Tax Increment Financing to Fund Infrastructure in Australia (draft report). Sydney: For the Property Council of Australia.
Reed, M., Evely, A., Cunhill, G., Fazey, J., Glass, J., Laing, A., . . . Stringer, L. (2010). What is Social Learning?
Ecology and Society.
Roodbol-Mekkes, P., & Brink, v. d. (2014). Rescaling Spatial Planning: Spatial planning reforms in Denmark, England, and the Netherlands. Environment and Planning C, 32, 1-15. doi: doi:10.1068/c12134
Root, L., van der Krabben, E., & Spit, T. (2014). Bridging the Financial Gap in Climate Adaptation: Dutch planning and land development through an institutional lens. Journal of Environmental Planning and
Management, 1-17. doi: 10.1080/09640568.2014.885412
Root, L., van der Krabben, E., & Spit, T. (2015). Between Structures and Norms: Assessing Tax Increment Financing for the Dutch Spatial Planning Toolkit Town Planning Review, 86 (3), 325-349.
Sauve, L., Renaud, L., Kaufman, D., & Marquis, J. S. (2007). Distinguishing Between Games and Simulations: a systematic review. Educational Technology & Society, 10(3).
Slack, E., & Bird, R. (2014) The Poltical Economy of Property Tax Reform. Vol. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5jz5pz-
vzv6r7-en (pp. 1-36): OECD Publishing.
Squires, G. (2012). ‘Dear Prudence’: an overview of tax increment financing. Journal of Urban Regeneration
and Renewal, 5(4), 1-12.
Straatemeir, T., Bertolini, L., & Brommelstroet, t. (2010). An Experiental Approach to Research in Planning.
Environment and Planning B, 37(4), 578-591.
Susskind, L. (2010). Responding to the Risks Posed by Climate Change: cities have no choice but to adapt.
Town Planning Review, 81(3), 217-295.
Termeer, C., Biesbroek, R., & van den Brink, M. (2011). Institutions for Adaptation to Climate Change: comparing national adaptation strategies in europe. European Political Science, 11(1), 41-53.
Termeer, C., Dewulf, A., van Rijswick, H., van Buuren, A., Huitema, D., Meijerink, S., . . . Wiering, M. (2011). The Regional Governance of Climate Adaptation: A framework for developing legitimate, effective, and resilient governance arrangements. Climate Law, 2(2), 159-179.
Tompkins, E., Adger, N., Boyd, E., Nicholson-Cole, S., Weatherhead, K., & Arnell, N. (2010). Observed adaptation to climate change: UK evidence of transition to a well-adapting society. Global Environmental
Change, 20(4), 627-635.
Tribbia, J., & Moser, S. (2008). More than Information: what coastal managers need to know to plan for climate change. Environmental Science and Policy, 11(4), 315–328.
Uittenbroek, C. (2014). How Mainstream is Mainstreaming? The intergratin of climate adaptation into urban
policy. (Doctorate), University of Utrecht, Faculty of Geosciences.
Uittenbroek, C., Janssen-Jansen, L., & Runhaar, H. (2013). Mainstreaming Climate Adaptation into Urban Planning: overcoming barriers, seizing opportunities and evaluating the results in two Dutch case studies. Regional Environmental Change, 13(2), 399-411.
van Buuren, A., van Vliet, M., & Termeer, C. (2015). The Governance of Adaptation to Climate Change and the Need for Actionable Knowledge: The challenges of climate change adaptation and the promise of action research. In A. van Buuren, M. van Vliet & J. Eshuis (Eds.), Action Research for Climate Adaptation:
Developing and applying knowledge for governance. Milton Park, U.K.: Routledge.
van der Krabben, E., & Jacobs, H. (2013). Public Land Development as a Strategic Tool for Redevelopment: reflections on the Dutch experience. Land Use Policy, 30(1), 774-783.
van der Krabben, E., & Needham, B. (2008a). Land Readjustment for Value Capturing: a new planning tool for urban redevelopment. Town Planning Review, 79(6), 651-672.
van der Krabben, E., & Needham, B. (2008b). Land Readjustment for Value Capturing: a new planning tool for urban redevelopment. Town Planning Review Town Planning Review, 79(6), 651-672.
VROM, C. (2010). VROM Council recommendations for sustainable urban development. The Hague. Weber, R. (2010). Selling City Futures: the financialization of urban redevelopment policy. Economic
Geography, 86(3), 251–274.
Westerhoff, L., Carina, E., Keskitalo, H., & Juhola, S. (2011 ). Capacities Across Scales: local to national adaptation policy in four European countries. Climate Policy 11(4), 1071-1085.