In this section the contents of the thesis are summarised. The introduction in Chapter 1 describes the motivation and research questions of the study. In addition to a large number of particles, Northern Vietnamese has a complex lexical tone system which is characterised by pitch and voice quality. The thesis addresses the following questions: i) which functions at the utterance level can prosody (in terms of pitch) convey in the language? ii) to what extent does it manifest itself, given that every single syllable/word in the language already has a lexical pitch?
Chapter 2 provides an overview of analytical frameworks including a) Conversation Analysis, b) Contextualisation Theory and c) the interactional and experimental approaches of investigating intonation. To investigate the form and function of intonational contours in discourse, a corpus of naturally occurring telephone conversations in Northern Vietnamese is analysed. The verification of results is achieved through the analysis of sequential organisation of talk, deviant cases and additional speech materials (controlled dialogues). The interactional approach serves as the basis for the telephone corpus analysis, whereas the experimental approach provides theoretical background for the perception experiment. Before presenting the results in the next chapters, an overview of the lexical tones as well as of the intonation research to date in Vietnamese is given. Here a simplified representation of the six lexical tones in Northern Vietnamese is proposed.
Chapter 3 describes the telephone corpus and the methods used to record, transcribe, annotate and analyse the data. The characteristics of the target utterances under investigation are given here including segmental composition, lexical tones and glosses. In Chapters 4 and 5 we provided evidence that pragmatic functions at the utterance level and lexical meanings of words can be conveyed simultaneously by the same means (pitch). Low/falling pitch contours are found on the utterances ờ, ừ and vâng (‘yes’) to convey the context of backchannel. High/rising pitch contours are found on the same words to convey the contexts of turn-yielding, request for information, and agreement/confirmation. Chapter 6 deals with repair initiation, the second main phenomenon investigated in the thesis. In this context we found a high/rising pitch contour on the utterances hả, gì, dạ, ai,
sao and ơi (‘yes/no question particle’, ‘what’, ‘politeness particle’, ‘who’, ‘why/how’, and
‘vocative particle’, respectively) to convey mishearing or problems understanding. Evidence for these intonational contours was provided by the analysis of the non-lexical item mm occurring in the above contexts.
Chapter 7 provides an analysis of the interaction between lexical tone and intonation. The intonational contours, where they occur, can completely override the lexical tone of the words investigated as analysed in backchannels, other interactional contexts (turn- yielding, request for information, and agreement/ confirmation) and repair initiations in fast speech. In these contexts, only intonational tones are realised. Intonational tones can also co-occur with lexical tones, in which case the lexical tone is followed by the intonational tone. This is the case in repair initiations in slow or careful speech.
96 Summary and conclusions
Chapter 8 looked at intonation from the point of view of perception. We found that native listeners of Northern Vietnamese do have affective/paralinguistic interpretations when the final pitch levels on backchannels are modified. They interpret a low final pitch in this context as more polite and less dominant than a high final pitch. This result indicates that Northern Vietnamese is an exception to the intonational universals proposed for a large number of languages as derived from the Frequency Code (Ohala 1983, Gussenhoven 2004).
The present study contributes to research on intonation, especially the intonation of Vietnamese, in several ways. First, we explored interactive linguistic and affective functions of intonation in Northern Vietnamese within two theoretical and methodological approaches: a) Conversation Analysis – (sequential) analysis of naturally occurring data, and b) Laboratory Phonology – acoustic analysis and perception experiments. This combination not only ensures the validity of the phenomena investigated, but also provides a qualitative and quantitative analysis of these phenomena.
Second, we provide a model analysing the interaction between intonation and lexical tone within Autosegmental Phonology, a theory which has successfully accounted for tonal phenomena in a variety of languages, ranging from intonation languages (e.g. English, German) and pitch-accent languages (e.g. Japanese, Serbo-Croatian) to tone languages with simple tone systems (e.g. Chichewa, Hausa) and more complex ones (e.g. Mandarin Chinese, Cantonese).
Finally, results shed light on within-language functions of intonation in Vietnamese (e.g. backchannels versus requests for information), on the one hand, and provide possible accounts for cross-language perception of paralinguistic intonational meanings, on the other. While in a number of languages high pitch is associated with politeness and low pitch with dominance, in (Northern) Vietnamese the perception of these intonational patterns appears to be reversed indicating a language-specific aspect of the relation between intonational form and paralinguistic meaning.
97
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Appendix A
An overview of Northern Vietnamese lexical tones with traditional names and alphanumeric codes Stylised contour Citation form (description of tone) Traditional name Alpha- numeric code Diacritics in orthography Example Gloss high-level/ mid-level
ngang A1 none la bawl
low-level/