Summary of regression analysis

The results of the regression analysis indicated that mindfulness and self-consciousness were likely to predict student adjustment disorder symptoms and anxiety; but not student marks (academic performance).

The results of the regression analysis in relation to adjustment disorder symptoms, mindfulness and self-consciousness showed that mindfulness had a stronger relationship (standardised beta = -0.35) with students’ adjustment disorder symptoms than self- consciousness (standardised beta = 0.09). Furthermore, the relationship between adjustment disorder symptoms and mindfulness was found to be significant, with a p value of < 0.0001. Similar results were obtained from the regression analysis of mindfulness, self-consciousness and anxiety – where it was found that both mindfulness and self-consciousness were likely to predict anxiety. The results also showed that mindfulness was likely to predict lower levels of anxiety (-0.34, p= <0.0001); while self-consciousness was found to likely predict higher levels of anxiety (0.12, p= 0.028).

Therefore, the results of the regression analysis confirmed relationship a (mindfulness and adjustment – adjustment disorder symptoms, depression and anxiety) – although with only significant results observed for anxiety (unlike in the correlation analysis). The results also confirmed relationship b (self-consciousness and adjustment disorder symptoms, depression and anxiety). However, the results did not confirm relationship d (mindfulness and student marks) and relationship e (self-consciousness and student marks) (see figure5.7).

The results of the regression analysis showed that mindfulness was more a predictor of students’ adjustment disorder symptoms, depression and anxiety than self-consciousness. Moreover, higher levels of mindfulness were associated with fewer symptoms of adjustment disorder symptoms, depression and anxiety in students.

5.4.3 PART THREE: Mediation results

Research question five

 Do adjustment variables mediate the effect of mindfulness and self-consciousness on students’ academic performance?

The researcher sought to investigate whether the adjustment variables (adjustment disorder symptoms, depression, anxiety and students’ marks) mediated the effect of the independent variables (mindfulness and self-consciousness) on academic performance. For this purpose mediation analysis was conducted. Part three discusses the findings of the mediation analysis. Self-consciousness results

Figure 5.10 Self-consciousness, adjustment disorder symptoms and student marks

Figure 5.10 indicates a significant positive a relationship between self-consciousness and the adjustment disorder symptoms at 0.14 and a p value of 0.02. The findings confirmed a significant negative b relationship between adjustment disorder symptoms and marks at - 0.144 and a p value of 0.02.

The findings indicated that although there was no direct relationship between self- consciousness and student marks at 0.12 and p value of 0.84, self-consciousness, which was found to predict adjustment disorder symptoms, could indirectly affect students’ marks. However, in testing the effects of mediation, a Sobel test, a specialized t test that provides a method to determine whether the effect of the independent variable is significant and therefore whether the mediation effect is statistically significant (Sobel, 1982), indicated an insignificant p value of 0.09. Therefore, the significant b relationship calls for further research. Self‐ conscio usness  Adjustment Disorder   symptoms(A+B+C)  Mean  of  marks a  b c 

Self-consciousness, depression and student marks

  C

Figure 5.11 Self-consciousness, Depression and student marks

Figure 5.11 shows an insignificant positive a relationship between self-consciousness and depression at 0.08 and a p value of 0.17. Also, the findings revealed an insignificant negative b relationship between depression and marks at -0.08 and a p value of 0.19. The results showed no direct relationship between self-consciousness and student marks at 0.12 and p value of 0.84, indicating no mediating effect. The Sobel test confirmed the above and indicated an insignificant p value of 0.34.

Self-consciousness, anxiety and student marks

  C

Figure 5.12 Self-consciousness, anxiety and student marks Self‐ conscio usness         DBI: Depression  Mean  of  marks a _b  c  Self‐ conscio usness           BAI: Anxiety  Mean  of  marks a  b  c 

Figure 5.12 indicates a significant positive a relationship between self-consciousness and anxiety at 0.19 and p value of 0.002. However, the findings showed an insignificant negative b relationship between anxiety and marks at -0.04 and a p value of 0.48.

The results showed no direct relationship between self-consciousness and student marks at 0.12 and a p value of 0.84, indicating no mediating effect. The Sobel test confirmed the above and indicated an insignificant p value of 0.46.

Mindfulness results

Mindfulness, adjustment disorder symptoms and student marks

  C

Figure 5.13 Mindfulness, adjustment disorder symptoms and student marks

Figure 5.13 indicates a significant negative a relationship between mindfulness and adjustment disorder symptoms at -0.39 and p value of 0.000. The findings revealed a significant negative b relationship between adjustment disorder symptoms and marks at - 0.144 and a p value of 0.016. The results indicated that although there was no direct relationship between mindfulness and student marks at 0.04 and a p value of 0.53, mindfulness; which predicts adjustment disorder symptoms, could indirectly affect marks. In testing the effects of mediation, a Sobel test indicated a significant p value of 0.03.

MAAS: mindfu lness  Adjustment Disorder   symptoms(A+B+C)  Mean  of  marks a  b  c 

Mindfulness, depression and student marks

Figure 5.14 Mindfulness, depression and student marks

Figure 5.14 indicates a significant negative a relationship between mindfulness and depression at -0.43 and a p value of 0.000. However, the findings revealed an insignificant negative b relationship between depression and marks at -0.08 and p value of 0.19. The results showed no direct relationship between mindfulness and student marks at 0.04 and a p value of 0.53, indicating no mediating effect. The Sobel test confirmed the above and indicated an insignificant p value of 0.26.

MAAS:  Mindfulness  BDI: Depression  Mean of  marks  a  b  c 

Mindfulness, anxiety and student marks

Figure 5.15 Mindfulness, adjustment disorder symptoms and student marks

Figure 5.15 indicates a significant negative a relationship between mindfulness and anxiety at 0.38 and p value of 0.000. However, the findings revealed an insignificant negative b relationship between anxiety and marks at -0.04 and a p value of 0.48. The results showed no direct relationship between mindfulness and student marks at 0.04 and a p value of 0.53, indicating no mediating effect. The Sobel test confirmed the above and indicated an insignificant p value of 0.61.

5.4.3.1 Summary of mediation results

Self-consciousness

The self-consciousness mediation results showed that self-consciousness had no significant relationship with depression at 0.083 and a p value of 0.17, and that no mediation effect was observed. Even though a significant relationship was found to exist between self- consciousness and anxiety at 0.19 and a p value of 0.002, no mediation effect was observed. Self-consciousness was found to have a significant relationship with adjustment disorder symptoms at 0.14 and a p value of 0.02. A significant relationship was found to exist between adjustment disorder symptoms and marks at 0.14 and a p value of 0.02, indicating a mediating effect. However, the Soble test showed that this effect was insignificant at 0.09. Also, due to the very weak significant b relationship, further research is required to explore the mediation effect.

MAAS:  Mindfulness           BAI: Anxiety  Mean of  marks  a  b  c

Mindfulness

The mindfulness mediation results showed that mindfulness had a significant relationship with depression at -0.43 and a p value of 0.00, but no significant relationship was found to exist between depression and student marks at -0.08 and a p value of 0.19. Therefore, no mediation effect was observed for mindfulness, depression and student marks. Even though a significant relationship was found to exist between mindfulness and anxiety at 0.19 and a p value of 0.002, a significant relationship was also found to exist between anxiety and marks. Therefore, no mediation effect was observed for mindfulness, anxiety and marks. Mindfulness was found to have a significant relationship with adjustment disorder symptoms at 0.39 and a p value of 0.000 – a significant relationship was also observed for adjustment disorder symptoms and marks at 0.14 and a p value of 0.016, indicating a mediating effect. The Soble test showed that this effect was significant at 0.03. Once again, due to the very weak significant b relationship, further research is required to explore the mediation effect. 5.5 Hypotheses testing

The study has investigated the relationship between mindfulness and self-consciousness on adjustment and academic performance. The study sought to test five hypotheses with regards to the impact of mindfulness and self-consciousness on adjustment and academic performance of first-year students at Tshwane University of Technology.

Hypothesis one

H1= High scores in mindfulness have a positive correlation to adjustment of first-year students. Mindfulness negatively correlates with adjustment disorder symptoms, depression and anxiety – that is, students with higher levels of mindfulness are less likely to experience difficulties in adjusting; and this translates into fewer symptoms of adjustment disorders, as well as lower levels of depression and anxiety.

The findings above confirmed hypothesis one and showed that high scores in mindfulness have a positive correlation to first-year students’ adjustment. Mindfulness was also found to have a significant negative correlation with adjustment disorder symptoms (r= -0.37), depression (r= -0.41) and anxiety (r= -0.35).

Hypothesis two

H2= High scores in self-consciousness have a positive correlation to the adjustment of first-year students. Students with higher levels of self-consciousness are less likely to experience difficulties in adjusting; and this translates into lower levels of depression and anxiety.

The findings did not confirm hypothesis two. Rather, the correlations results suggest that students with higher levels of self-consciousness are more likely to experience more adjustment disorder symptoms (r= 0.1651, p= 0.0046) depression (r= 0.1442, p= 0.0137) and anxiety (0.1831, p= 0.0016). Furthermore, the results of the regression analysis indicated that self-consciousness (standardised beta of 0.09, p = 0.0987) was unlikely to impact on or predict students’ adjustment disorder symptoms or depression (standardised beta of 0.001, p= 0.98). The findings showed that self-consciousness was likely to impact more on students’ anxiety (standardized beta of 0.12, p= 0.028) and also predict it – that is, although self- consciousness in students was associated with more symptoms of adjustment disorder, depression and anxiety in first-year students, self-consciousness could only predict students’ anxiety.

The hypotheses on the self-consciousness sub-scales were partially confirmed: Hypothesis on private self-consciousness

Private self-consciousness correlates positively with adjustment and academic performance – that is, private self-consciousness has a negative correlation with adjustment disorder symptoms, depression and anxiety and positive correlation with student marks.

The findings did not confirm this hypothesis. Rather, the results suggest that students with higher levels of private self-consciousness are more likely to experience adjustment difficulties – that is, they are more likely to experience more adjustment disorder symptoms, depression and anxiety. The findings also suggest no significant relationship between private self-consciousness and academic performance (students’ marks).

Hypothesis on public self-consciousness

Public self-consciousness correlates negatively with adjustment and academic performance – that is, public self-consciousness has a positive correlation with adjustment disorder symptoms, depression and anxiety and negative correlation with student marks.

The findings confirmed this hypothesis. The results suggest that students with higher levels of public self-consciousness are more likely to experience adjustment difficulties – that is, students are more likely to experience more adjustment disorder symptoms, depression and anxiety. The findings also suggest no significant relationship between public self- consciousness and academic performance (students’ marks).

Hypothesis on social anxiety

Social anxiety correlates negatively with adjustment and academic performance – that is, social anxiety has a positive correlation with adjustment disorder symptoms, depression and anxiety and negative insignificant correlation with student marks.

The findings confirmed this hypothesis. The results suggest that students with social anxiety are more likely to experience adjustment difficulties – that is, students are more likely to experience more adjustment disorder symptoms, depression and anxiety. The findings also suggest no significant relationship between public self-consciousness and academic performance (students’ marks).

Hypothesis three

H3= There is a positive correlation between first-year students’ adjustment and academic performance. Therefore, depression, anxiety and adjustment disorder symptoms correlate negatively with their academic performance.

The findings partially confirmed hypothesis three, which states that there is a positive correlation between first-year students’ adjustment and academic performance.

No significant correlation was found to exist between depression and students’ marks, as well as between anxiety and students’ marks. In this regard, the null hypothesis is confirmed for depression and academic performance, as well as for anxiety and academic performance. However, a significant negative correlation was established between adjustment disorder symptoms and academic performance (r= -0.1544, p = 0.0106) – specifically student marks negatively correlated with the emotional/psychological symptoms of adjustment disorder (r= -0.13, p= 0.0106) and the behavioural symptoms of adjustment disorder (r= -0.15, p= 0.0139), indicating that adjustment disorder symptoms in first-year students negatively impacted on academic performance.

Hypothesis four

H4= High scores in mindfulness have a positive correlation to academic performance of first-year students. Students with higher levels of mindfulness are more likely to perform better academically.

The findings did not confirm hypothesis four, which states that students with higher levels of mindfulness are more likely to perform better. Instead, the findings of the correlation analysis confirmed the null hypothesis as there was no significant correlation observed between mindfulness and student marks (r= 0.040, p= 0.52).

Hypothesis five

H5= High scores in self-consciousness have a positive correlation to academic performance of first-year students. Students with higher levels of self-consciousness are more likely to perform better academically.

The findings did not confirm hypothesis five, which states that students with higher level of self-consciousness are more likely to perform better. Instead, the findings of the correlation analysis confirmed the null hypothesis as no significant correlation was found to exist between self-consciousness and student marks (r= 0.005, p= 0.94).

Hypothesis six

H6= Mindfulness will impact or mostly predict students’ adjustment and academic performance than self-consciousness.

The results of the regression analysis confirmed hypothesis six and showed that mindfulness (standardised beta of -0.35, p = <0.0001) impacts more on students’ adjustment disorder symptoms than self-consciousness (standardised beta of 0.09, p= 0.0987), students’ depression (standardised beta of -0.41, p=< 0.0001) and students’ anxiety (standardised beta of -0.34, p=< 0.0001). Thus, higher levels of mindfulness in students were associated with fewer adjustment disorder symptoms and lower levels of depression and anxiety in first-year students. Higher levels of mindfulness were also found to predict fewer symptoms of these variables.

The regression analysis indicated that mindfulness is unlikely to predict student marks (academic performance), showing a standardised beta of 0.046 and a p value of 0.46. Similar results were observed in the regression analysis, which indicated that self-consciousness was unlikely to predict student marks (academic performance), showing a standardised beta of 0.017 and a p value of 0.78.

Hypothesis seven

H7=Adjustment disorder symptoms, depression and anxiety mediate the effect of mindfulness and self-consciousness on students’ academic performance.

The results of the mediation analysis partially confirmed hypothesis seven. The results indicated that mindfulness and self-consciousness could impact on students’ marks through adjustment disorder symptoms. The mediation results indicated a very weak insignificant impact of self-consciousness on students’ marks through adjustment disorder symptoms. However, this effect was found to be insignificant. The mediation effect was only significant in the relationship between mindfulness, adjustment disorder symptoms and mean of students’ marks. Even so, the effect was observed to be very weak.

5.6 Conclusion

The chapter discussed the statistical analysis of the data. In the first part correlations analysis was conducted in order to determine relationships between mindfulness, self-consciousness, adjustment variables and student marks.

The second part discussed the regression analysis, which was conducted to determine independent variables of the study (mindfulness and self-consciousness) that predicted as well as impacted more on adjustment variables (adjustment disorder symptoms, depression and anxiety) and academic performance (student marks).

The third part discussed the mediation analysis, which was conducted to determine if the independent variables of the study (mindfulness and self-consciousness) mediated the effects of the adjustment variables (depression, anxiety and adjustment disorder symptoms) on students’ academic performance (mean of marks). Hypothesis testing was also conducted to investigate the impact of mindfulness and self-consciousness on students’ adjustment (depression, anxiety and adjustment disorder symptoms) and academic performance (mean of marks).

The findings partially confirmed the hypotheses of the study and showed that both mindfulness and self-consciousness impacted on students’ adjustment disorder symptoms, depression and anxiety. However, the findings revealed that mindfulness had a negative relationship with the adjustment variables, while self-consciousness had a positive relationship with the adjustment variables.

The findings showed that mindfulness would most likely predict less adjustment disorder symptoms, less depression and less anxiety in students, while self-consciousness would unlikely predict adjustment disorder symptoms and depression. Self-consciousness would likely predict more anxiety. Although the findings revealed that mindfulness and self- consciousness seemed to indirectly affect marks through adjustment disorder symptoms, this effect was only significant in mindfulness, adjustment disorders symptoms and marks.

Even though the mediation results suggest some mediating effect, the very weak relationship between adjustment disorder symptoms and marks however, calls for a further investigation, as this effect could not be found to be conclusive.

Chapter six analyses and discusses the findings in more detail.

CHAPTER SIX

DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION

6.1 Introduction

This study examined the impact of mindfulness and self-consciousness on first-year students’ adjustment and academic performance. The theoretical positions as introduced in Chapter two and the classification and evaluation of the findings from the literature reviewed (Chapter three) were tested against the empirical data collected for the study. The chapter provides an overview of the study, a discussion of the results, conclusions based on the findings, implications regarding the issues raised by the study, as well as suggestions for future research.

6.2 Discussion of the results

The transition from high school to institutions of higher learning can result in adjustment difficulties for first-year students (Pittman & Richmond, 2008). Many students struggle to adjust upon arrival at institutions of higher learning (Brooks & DuBois, 1995). These adjustment difficulties can impact on students’ academic performance (Clinciu, 2013; Habayed & Abu Marak, 2009; Tinto, 1993). The effects of these adjustment difficulties and poor academic performance can lead to students’ withdrawal/drop out, which poses a challenge for the retention of students in institutions of higher learning (Barefoot, 2004; Cabrera et al., 2006; Levitz & Noel, 1989; Tinto, 1993).

The general assumption is that as students adjust to university life and the university environment the more effective they will be in utilising resources around campus (e.g. student development and support). Their interaction with fellow students and lecturers will also improve; and this will in turn, continue to contribute to their academic performance (Huysamen, 1999). Therefore, while students’ poor academic performance can be attributed to several factors, adjustment difficulties are highlighted as an important contributing factor in this regard.

While extensive research conducted in South Africa has focused on diverse contributing factors such as structural, political, familial and financial problems (Beckham, 2000; Bojuwoye, 2002; Delvare, 1995; Human Science and Research Council, 2005; Letseka & Breier, 2008; Petersen et al., 2009), very few studies have examined students’ psychological/personal attributes and coping resources during students’ transition into institutions of higher learning, which highlights the importance of this exploration.

Much remains unknown as far as the relationship between students’ psychological/personal attributes, coping resources, adjustment and academic performance during their first year of study at tertiary institutions is concerned. Little is also known about psychological/personal attributes as coping resources during the transition to institutions of higher learning and their subsequent impact on adjustment and academic performance.

Thus, the current study aimed to explore the impact of psychological/personal attributes on first-year students’ adjustment and academic performance. Specifically, mindfulness and self- consciousness in first-year students were explored in relation to emotional/psychological adjustment (adjustment disorder symptoms, depression and anxiety) and academic performance (students’ marks). The Self-Consciousness Scale (Revised) and the Mindfulness Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) were administered together with the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) and the Adjustment Disorder Symptom Checklist to determine the level of first-year students’ adjustment. Students’ results/marks were obtained from the relevant faculties at the Tshwane University of Technology to assess their academic performance. Correlation, regression and mediation analyses were conducted in order to determine relationships.

The main aim of the current study was therefore, to explore the relationships between mindfulness and self-consciousness (independent variables of the study), the adjustment variables of the study (adjustment disorder symptoms, depression and anxiety) and academic performance (students’ marks) (dependent variables).

6.2.1 Mindfulness, adjustment disorder, depression, anxiety and academic performance

The effect of mindfulness on supporting coping processes can be understood in numerous