Using a deductive approach (i.e. top-down), a conceptual framework was designed to illustrate, theoretically, communication processes within school-based health promotions. This a priori model was devised, initially, as a result of the literature review process conducted prior to data collection. In this chapter, the discussion has detailed how observed data was analysed using this a priori framework. An important function of this chapter was, thus, to present key insights learnt by applying the a priori framework. These insights lead to the emergence of four communication themes, namely, the juxtaposition of government policy and community priorities (Theme A), stakeholder roles and relationships (Theme B), health promotion approach (Theme C) and environmental contexts (Theme D). Themes A, B and C are presented in detail in Chapter Seven, while Theme D is discussed in Chapter Eight.
Moreover, by examining each component of communication, we learnt that the a priori
framework was in fact inadequate for the case data. Table 5.2 provides a summary of new knowledge learnt through applying the framework. Consequently, using instead an inductive approach (i.e. bottom-up) to conceptualising communication processes, I developed an a posteriori
framework based on the observed case data. The a posteriori framework is presented and discussed at the close of this chapter. Note both the a priori and a posteriori frameworksare included (Figure 5.2, p. 98 and Figure 5.3, p. 99 respectively) to illustrate the differences between the two models. Table 5.2. New Knowledge Learnt Regarding Communication within School-based Health Promotions
Original Communication
Path (a priori) New Knowledge Revised Communication Path (posteriori) a SOURCE has
COMMUNICATION OBJECTIVE transformed into MESSAGE(S) delivered via MESSAGE CHANNEL.
The New Zealand Curriculum Framework operates as a message channel, created by policy makers, who influence the objectives of health and PE.
SOURCE (School) has a prescribed (by Government) COMMUNICATION OBJECTIVE & MESSAGE CHANNEL (curriculum). SOURCE (school) then transforms the COMMUNICATION
OBJECTIVE into MESSAGE(S) delivered via MESSAGE CHANNEL (curriculum).
RECEIVER experiences a COMMUNICATION OUTCOME.
Through classroom learning and physical activities, school-based health promotions expose children to positive health messages, teach children skills needed to engage in positive health behaviours, and provide opportunities to engage in those behaviours.
RECEIVER experiences a COMMUNICATION OUTCOME in the form of changes to COGNITIVE VARIABLES (knowledge and attitudes), BEHAVIOURAL INTENTION and BEHAVIOUR. RECEIVER develops SKILLS AND ABILITIES to perform
BEHAVIOUR. COMMUNICATION NOISE
impacts upon the SOURCE, MESSAGE, MESSAGE CHANNEL and FEEDBACK components of communication.
A variety of factors can either enhance or inhibit any stage of the communication process. These factors are a combination of communication noise, skills and abilities, and environmental conditions.
COMMUNICATION and
SUBSEQUENT BEHAVIOUR takes place within a number of
environmental contexts and is impacted upon by factors within those contexts including
communication noise, a person’s skills and abilities, and
Fig ure 5. 2. Co mm un ica tio n P ro ce ss es wit hi n Scho ol -ba sed H ea lth P ro mo tio ns ( a p ri o ri )
Figure 5.3. Communication Processes within School-based Health Promotions (a posteriori) Source: Hawkins (2008)
In the a posteriori framework, schools (source) have a prescribed message channel (the Health and PE curriculum) designed to deliver messages to children (receiver). The fundamental communication objectives, to influence children‘s awareness, attitudes and behaviours with respect to nutrition and physical activity, are required by the curriculum. Schools then tailor messages to the needs of their community and deliver them through the curriculum using communication tools such as classroom learning (i.e. personal selling) and organised sports events (i.e. sponsorship marketing). Children are exposed to health messages through communication, but also develop skills and abilities through school-based activities which enable them to engage in positive behaviours. Communication is effective when the message sent by the school is received and understood by the children. Feedback occurs when children respond to the message. Behavioural elements are included in the communication outcome component of the framework. The outcome of communication is the impact school-based health promotions have on children‘s health knowledge, attitudes and behaviours (cognitive variables, behavioural intention and behaviour). Additionally, a variety of factors including communication noise, a person‘s skills and abilities, and environmental conditions can impact upon communication processes and subsequent behaviour. These factors exist within the environmental contexts in which communication and behaviour takes place.
As expected, in school-based health promotions, the school is the primary source of communication, with children as the primary receivers. The findings of this study show, however, that schools, parents and children may be both sources and receivers. While school-based promotions are primarily targeted at children, messages from schools (and children) may also be targeting parents. Likewise, by conversing with children and through their own behaviours, parents are sending messages to children about health. Although single communication interactions between sources and receivers may not achieve great changes in behaviour, the combined effect of multiple consistent messages over time, integrated across the environments, is likely to contribute to positive health behaviours among children.
P
ART
T
HREE
R
ESEARCH
F
INDINGS AND
R
ESULTS
Part Three, containing Chapters Six, Seven and Eight, presents the results and findings of this research. Chapter Six is the Parent Survey Results. The chapter includes results and discussion of the regression analysis conducted with responses to the questionnaire completed by parents. Chapters Seven and Eight comprise an integrated discussion of findings and results from all school stakeholders presented as four themes (as introduced in Chapter Five). Theme A relates to the juxtaposition of government policy and community priorities, Theme B focuses on stakeholder roles and relationships, Theme C is concerned with health promotion approaches and Theme D examines factors associated with the environmental contexts in which communication processes take place.
A notable characteristic of the themes is that dimensions of Themes A, B and C largely affect the ‗process‘ components of communication within health promotions. This arises through impacts upon senders, communication objectives, messages, message channels and communication tools. By comparison, Theme D illustrates factors largely impacting upon the final stages of communication, ‗communication outcomes‘, including children‘s cognitions about healthy behaviours and whether or not they engage in those behaviours. Themes A, B and C are, therefore, grouped as Communication Themes and presented in Chapter Seven, while Theme D pertains to the
Environmental Contexts of communication and is presented in Chapter Eight. In both chapters key ideas are illustrated with case evidence and are critically linked to supporting literature. Implications for theory and practice are also suggested.
CHAPTER SIX
P
ARENT
S
URVEY
R
ESULTS
6.1.
Chapter Overview
In order to determine parents‘ views on school-based health promotions, and complement the data collected from school staff and children, a self-completion questionnaire was used to survey parents at the six schools. This chapter presents results of that survey. The results show parents‘ perceptions of nutrition, physical activity, and obesity-related issues are significantly related to demographic factors, such as gender, age, socio-economic status and ethnicity. Moreover, these results support the four communication themes48 of school-based health promotions identified
through qualitative analysis, and the proposed a posteriori model of communication processes. The results provided evidence of factors within the home and wider environments that impact upon health promotion communication and behaviour. The chapter concludes with a summary of the discussion.