Radial analysis
Figure 5.5: Visual comparison of observed landuse changes (a) and land use
6. An activitybased cellular automaton model to simulate landuse dynamics
6.4 A synthetic case study
6.4 A synthetic case study
6.4.1 The case study aplication
A synthetic application was used to test the hypothesis that settlement patterns can grow from local interactions between activities and land uses. Hence, the case study does not include geographical information such as physical suitability, spatial planning or accessibility to transport networks. The case study is defined on a regular lattice of 200 by 200 cells, which for illustrative purposes can be taken to represent one hectare each. Thus the total area comprises 40 000 cells or 400 km². The application is used to simulate land‐use change over a period of 1000 time steps that represent one year each.
The case‐study application has two activity‐constrained land‐use types. These are residential land and industrial land, and associated to this are the activities population and jobs, respectively. An initial small amount of population and jobs was distributed randomly over the area. Over time population increases linearly from 592 at t = 0 to 60 000 at t = 1000, while the number of jobs increase linearly from 445 at t = 0 to 30 000 in t = 1000. Next to residential and industrial land use, there is one area‐constrained land use, which is agricultural land. We assume that 1 hectare is sufficient to feed 10 persons, therefore the area demand for agriculture increases from 1 cell in t = 0 to 6 000 cells in t = 1000. Finally, there is one unconstrained land use, which is natural land. All cells that are not occupied by residential, industrial or agricultural land use become natural land.
To evaluate the activity‐based CA model we considered the land‐use patterns that were generated in T = 1000, which were assessed visually and by the statistical signature (Moss, 2002). Additionally, the meaning of the parameters in
the transition rules as well as the path towards the eventual land‐use pattern was evaluated.
6.4.2 Parameterization
The calibration of parameters in the activity‐based model is a manual process.
However, the parameter space is limited as we require neighbourhood rules to represent real‐world interactions between actors. As argued before, these interactions are typically local. Because the case‐study application includes three constrained land uses and one unconstrained land use, there are twelve possible interactions between activity types. The numerical values of the compatibility coefficients and the weights in the neighbourhood effect that were used for this case study are given in Table 6.1 and Table 6.2, respectively. It should be noted that weights that represent the effect of population and jobs are low relative to the effect of other activities. This is because the weights are multiplied with the respective activities on a location. The density for population and jobs is typically much higher than the activity density of 1 associated with agricultural and natural land uses.
Population, associated with residential land use, can be allocated on all land‐use types, but has a natural preference for residential land uses, represented in its compatibility factor. Population is attracted by existing population in the same location as well as in the direct vicinity. This represents the social interactions or the availability of general facilities implied by the clustering of a larger number of people. Jobs and agriculture attract population at a small distance, representing employment and the availability of food in the neighbourhood.
Jobs show behaviour similar to population. They can be allocated on all land uses, although natural land use is by far the least attractive, as represented by the relatively low compatibility coefficient. Both agriculture and jobs attract jobs in their vicinity, since both represent employment. Clustering creates additional employment, for the processing of products, and benefits of scale such as described among others by Arthur (1990). Jobs are attracted by population, because people represent both customers and employees.
Table 6.2: Compatibility coefficients as used in the case study application.
Land use Compatibility with population Compatibility with jobs
Natural land use 0.6 0.5
Residential land use 1 0.7
Industrial land use 0.4 1
Agricultural land use 0.7 0.7
Table 6.1: Weights of the neighbourhood effect as used in the casestudy application. Weights are interpolated linearly between the indicated values.
Distance (cells)
Activity interactions 0 1 2 3 4
From population to population 30 0.25 0.001 0 0
From population to jobs 0.1 0.4 0 0 0
From population to agriculture 0 3 0.5 0.25 0
From jobs to population 0 0.5 0 0 0
From jobs to jobs 20 0.45 0 0 0
From jobs to agriculture 0 2 0 0 0
From agriculture to population 4 1.5 0.2 0.1 0
From agriculture to jobs 0 2 0 0 0
From agriculture to agriculture 300 5 0 0 0
From nature to population 0 0 0 0 0
From nature to jobs 0 0 0 0 0
From nature to agriculture 0 0 0 0 0
Agricultural land use is attracted by areas where there is population, because population represents first of all farmers to work on the field and second, customers for their products and therefore a lower distance to markets. The latter also explains why an accumulation of population is more attractive for agricultural land use than a mere presence of it. A similar relation but much less occupies locations that are not in use by residential, industrial or agricultural land. Therefore, there is no interaction effect from other land uses or activities on natural land use defined.
6.4.3 Simulation results
Figure 6.2 shows snapshots of the land use, the population distribution and the job distribution, at regular intervals in time. Maps are taken from one single run, but because all simulation runs show similar results, this is taken as a representative example. The maps show that initially activities are distributed more or less randomly over space, as are the plots of agricultural land. Activity is not yet clustered to the extent that any residential or industrial land appears. As time progresses and the amount of activity increases, activity clusters and so
does the agricultural land. The first small patches of residential land appear in the centre of larger agricultural areas, and continue to grow because the population increases. Eventually, some urban clusters grow bigger over time, while most of them remain of smaller sizes. As jobs cluster on locations with a concentration of population, some locations with industrial land appear on the edge of larger urban clusters, while others are more isolated.
Figure 6.2: Time series representing land use and activity distributions of a typical simulation run for regular intervals in time.
The emergence of the settlement pattern over time occurs in several stages, which are associated with an increa‐‐gly more developed economy. Initially people cluster together only a little bit in agricultural areas, representing the development of the primary sector. Then, as the population grows, the first settlements appear, which equates to the secondary sector as some form of organization is required. Most settlements stay small, while some grow over time to more central cities. It is mostly around these larger cities that also jobs clusters to the extent that industrial land use appears, indicating a developing tertiary sector.
6.4.4 Urban cluster distribution
The described settlement pattern emerges from strictly local interactions between activities. These incremental activity changes eventually exhibit themselves as land‐use changes, in accordance with the initial hypothesis.
However, as a description is only subjective, the generated land‐use patterns and activity distribution are also assessed objectively.
Models for land‐use change are often evaluated by their capability to accurately simulate historical land‐use changes (Pontius et al., 2008), where accuracy is typically assessed on a pixel level using map comparison techniques (Hagen, 2002; Pontius et al., 2004a). Since the aim of this study is to test the ability to generate realistic urbanization patterns rather than to simulate changes accurately, we use a synthetic application and therefore we have no historic land‐use changes to compare with.
For reasonably large areas the distribution of urban cluster sizes is known to follow Zipf’s law, also known as the rank – size rule (Krugman, 1996; Gabaix, 1999; Reed 2002; Cordoba, 2008). For this, clusters of direct adjacent residential and industrial land are ranked from one onwards, where 1 represents the largest cluster, 2 the next largest, and so on. Cluster sizes are measured from the population in a cluster in the simulation results at T = 1000. The rank‐size rule indicates that this distribution approximates a power law as follows:
· Equation 6.8
Figure 6.3 shows this rank‐size distribution for one simulation result, including the power law that approximates this distribution best.
Figure 6.3: Cluster size distribution for the result of one typical simulation run at time T = 1000.
y = 1855 x‐1.07 R² = 0.99
1 10 100 1000 10000
1 10 100
Cluster size