1. Trustworthiness Issues in Phenomenological Research
Trustworthiness is establishing validity and reliability in qualitative research.
Qualitative research is trustworthy when it accurately represents the lived experiences of the study participants (Speziale & Carpenter 2003, p364). Trustworthiness consists of four criteria: credibility; dependability; confirmability and transferability (Polit &
Beck 2006).
1.1. Credibility
Credibility refers to how much confidence can be placed in the truth of the data and in the interpretation process. Researchers ‘take steps to improve and evaluate data credibility’ (Polit & Beck 2006, p332). Credibility involves two aspects: executing the investigation where believability is enhanced and taking necessary steps to demonstrate credibility. These two important aspects are achieved through various techniques for improving and documenting the credibility of qualitative research (Lincoln & Guba 1985, p306).
Prolonged engagement - Lincoln & Guba (1985) recommend the researcher(s) invest sufficient time in the collection of data, and develop an in-depth understanding of language, culture, beliefs of a group and test for misinformation. This technique allows the researcher(s) the opportunity to build a rapport with the participants where the issue of trust prevails. Persistent observation – This technique refers to the researcher’s focal point on the aspects of a situation that is relevant to the phenomena being investigated.
“If prolonged engagement provides scope, persistent observation provides depth”
(Lincoln & Guba 1985, p304).
Triangulation – This technique draws conclusions about what constitutes truth through the use of multiple references. Its aim is to avoid ‘intrinsic bias that comes from single-method, single observer, and single theory studies’ (Denzin 1989, p313). There are four types of triangulation: Data source triangulation that uses multiple data sources in a study; investigator triangulation that uses more than one person to collect, analyse or interpret a set of data; theory triangulation that uses multiple perspectives to interpret a set of data, and method triangulation that uses multiple methods to address a research problem (Polit & Beck 2006, p333).
Peer debriefing and external checks – this technique involves objective peers to review and explore various aspects of the research. This process exposes investigators to experienced individuals either in qualitative research, in the phenomenon being studied or both. External member checks – Lincoln & Guba consider this technique the most important for research credibility. This technique involves seeking the participants’
reactions to preliminary findings and interpretation. Member checking can be carried out informally in an ongoing way as data are being collected and more formally as data is being collected and analysed. Negative case analysis – this technique involves a re-examination of each case after analysis to determine if characteristics or properties of the emergent themes were applicable to all cases. The goal of this is to refine a
hypothesis or theory continuously until it accounts for all cases without exception (Polit
& Beck 2006, p334; Lincoln & Guba 1985, p304).
Researcher credibility – Patton (2002) discusses the trust that can be placed upon the researcher. Patton considers the researchers’ training, qualifications, and experiences that are important in establishing confidence in the data (Polit & Beck 2006, p334).
1.2. Dependability
Dependability in qualitative research refers to ‘data stability over time and conditions’
(Ibid., p335). Stepwise replication is a technique for dependability. This approach splits the research team in two that work independently from the other then compare data and conclusions. Inquiry audit – is a technique that involves the critique of the data and relevant supporting documents by an external reviewer.
1.3. Confirmability
Confirmability refers to the objectivity of the data, that is, ‘the potential for congruence between two or more independent people about the data’s accuracy, relevance, or meaning’ (Ibid., p336). Bracketing and maintaining a reflexive journal are methods that enhance confirmability. In an inquiry audit, an investigator develops an audit trail where an inquiry auditor examines the product, should a query arise over the research.
1.4. Transferability
Transferability refers to the ability of research findings to transfer and have meaning in other settings, groups or cultural context. Lincoln and Guba (1985) point out that it is the responsibility of the researcher to provide sufficient descriptive data in the research report for ‘consumers to evaluate the applicability of the data to other contexts’
(Lincoln & Guba 1985, p316).
These four essential assessments of qualitative data will be used as I carry out the investigation. Chapter four will discuss the implementation and provide examples of how trustworthiness was sought and upheld in this project.
2. Ethical Considerations
Ethical considerations are the practise of research that maintains ethical principles and protects human rights (Speziale & Carpenter 2003, p311). From current literature on
the practise of ethics in qualitative research, three principles seem to emerge:
beneficence, autonomy, and justice underpin ethical considerations. Participants in an investigation should not in any way be harmed; this supports the first principle of beneficence. Researchers must obtain informed consent, and participation must be of a voluntary nature that supports the second principle of autonomy. Researchers also have the responsibility to ensure informant participation is confidential and that anonymity will be upheld and that participants will be treated with respect and dignity. This supports the third principle of beneficence and justice (Ibid., p314).
For the purpose of this study, ethical approval was sought for conducting research using human subjects from the College Human Research Ethics Committee in Australia.
Through the process of purposeful sampling, each participant to the study was fully informed of the research via information letters relating to the purpose of the study, confidentiality issues and personal rights as participants. In the consent agreement I specified: The purpose of the research, the procedures of the research, the voluntary nature of the research participation, the participant’s rights to cease the research at any time and the procedures used to protect confidentiality. For the participant to be part of the research, a signed consent form was required indicating that they understood the method and reasons for the research and their rights as participants. The participants were also informed that all data collection would be secured and stored in a locked cabinet at the researcher’s work office. All transcripts will be shredded and
tapes erased or destroyed five years after the completion of the study. Ethical consideration will be further discussed in chapter four demonstrating how the three principles – beneficence, autonomy and justice were upheld in this investigation.
Summary
The purpose of this chapter was to seek and justify an appropriate research design that would frame the research question of this investigation. Essential elements of the research process considered conceptual, philosophical and theoretical underpinnings and discussed strategy in the collection of data and analysis. In chapter four I will document two important stages in the research strategy, the collection and the analysis of data. The chapter will also demonstrate how the theoretical and philosophical principles of phenomenology informed and guided the research.
Figure 4. Research Design for the Investigation
Chapter Four
THE SEARCH AND CONSTRUCTION OF MEANING
Overview
This chapter documents the data collection and the data analysis process in the search and construction of meaning from the data. The chapter is divided into two sections. It applies the principles and philosophy of phenomenology in the act of gathering data for the investigation. It seeks to provide a detailed description of how the data was
collected and documents reflections of this process. Secondly, again the principles and philosophy of phenomenology are applied, but this time in the act of constructing meaning from the collection of data. It discusses a five-stage process of analysis and documents reflections on this process. In both sections the theoretical and
philosophical underpinnings as discussed in chapter three, informed and guided the research.