Positivist Paradigm Interpretivist paradigm
Basic Beliefs
The world is external and objective
The observer is independent Science is value free
The world is socially constructed and subjective
The observer is party to what is being observed
Science is driven by human interests
The Researcher should
Focus on facts
Locate causality between variables
Formulate and test hypotheses deductive approach)
Focus on meaning Try to understand what is happening
Construct theories and models from the data (inductive approach)
Methods include
Operationalizing concepts so that they can be measured Using larger samples from which to generalise to the population Quantitative methods
Using multiple methods to establish different views of a phenomenon
Using small samples researched in depth or over time
Qualitative methods
Easterby-Smith, Thorpe and Lowe 1991
Table 4.3 Philosophical standpoints taken in the gift-giving literature studied Gift-giving
Literature Philosophical Standpoint
Interpretivist/
Positivist Comments
Belk 1987 Letters qualitative research i.e. Interpretivist but just a review Interpretivist Synthesizes a whole lot of information together not very strong is this appropriate
Banks 1979
Philosophical standpoint based on contemporary work, Reciprocity based on questions Belk’s canonical analysis regression multivariate questions
Interpretivist Interactive paradigm gift-giving as a wide area - ratifies other research to formulate a model four main underpinnings to everything – gift-giving (gg) as identity formulation, gg as a marketing context, gg as nothing really Caron and Ward.
Sherry 1983 Anthropological Interpretivist Proposed a typology of gift-giving based on
literature reviews of others Otnes and Woodruff
1991
Consumer employ specific info strategies whilst shopping Anthropology?
Interpretivist Model created on Banks (1979) and Sherry (1983)
Ratification of 2 models based on no research
Sherry and McGrath 1989
Ethnographic study Phenomenological Naturalistic study
Processual model of Gift-giving (Sherry) Participant observation
Depth interviews
Interpretivist Longitudinal
Participant observation Interviewing
Gift-giving the role of women
Ruth, Otnes and Brunel 1990
Lived phenomenology of gift receipt Qualitative data collection methods
Depth interviews and critical incident techniques
Interpretivist Content analytical procedures 16 interviews
Triangulation across two methods
Belk and Coon 1993
Anthropological
Interpretivist Qualitative information Interviews
Interpretivist Just looked at the literature
Did not feel as though any real research had been conducted
Otnes, Lowrey and Kim 1993
Thought the role of the recipient was underplayed Interpretivist approach
In depth interview with shopping trip observation (ethnography) and follow up interview (used methods of Wallendorf and Belk 1989, Bogdan and Taylor (1984) and McCracken (1988)
Interpretivist Based on the fact that little in the way of empirical research has been conducted and social role have not been examined as much.
14 women and 1 male.
Six roles emerged from this. Examining roles across a life cycle, chameleons, gender boundaries were also highlighted
Ruth, Otnes, Brunel 1999
In depth interviews on topic Qualitative ethnographic method Critical incident techniques flexible Phenomenological
Interpretivist 16 (8 males 8 females) interviews asking about when they had received a gift 34 incidents were usable
CIS provided information on emotions of gift experience – triangulation
Developed relational effects Limitations old experiences
Wooten 2000
Interpretivist Qualitative
Constant comparative method used for analysis
Interpretivist Critical incident surveys
Semi-structured interviews Longitudinal study may be best Joy 2001
Models of gift-giving used economic Observations used
Qualitative ethnographic method Interpretivist
Interpretivist Narratives conducted content formulations
conducted
Wooten and Wood 2004
Interpretivist
Qualitative to a certain degree
Interpretivist 19 Semi-structured interviews
Videotaping baby showers Thank you cards
Story telling Interviews Lowrey, Otnes and
Ruth 2004
Empirical, interview, shopping trip, interview and shopping trip, lack of hypothesis development
Interpretivist
Interpretivist 5 informants over a ten year period (longitudinal) Relationships decline and presents decline
Roster 2006
Qualitative Interpretivist Based on literature Coding conducted
Interpretivist Critical Incident technique
Semi-structured questionnaire
Belk 1979
Empirical study on motivation applied Newcon and Heider Models to balanced configuration
Indexes of gift-giving
Positivist Examined 2 studies. One an inventory of responses
to a questionnaire booklet. Canaconical analysis. Second study looked at catalogue choices, collages.
Fischer and Arnold 1990
Positivist – H 1- H 4 Structured questionnaire in homes personal interview
Epistemological Questionnaire – quantitative independent variable measured. Qualitative interview conducted Interpretivist
Positivist Gender role attitudes measured by items developed
by (Scanzoni 1975; Scanzoni and Szinovacz 1980) Gender identity measured by Bem Sex Role inventory (Bem 1974)
Measure of Christmas shopping behaviour Correlations identified
Regression models used to differentiate between the two genders
Clarke 2003/6/8
Quantitative positivist approach, empirical
Self administered survey method with a sample frame of at least one child in the family aged between 3 and eight years
Response rate 17.6 %
Positivist Questionnaire constructed from a pool generated
from the literature. Analysis with Exploratory factor analysis EFA then confirmatory factor analysis CFA.
4.4 The methods approach and path
As discussed (chapter 2 section 2.10) the development of the field of gift-giving; the breadth versus depth of research and the author’s personal experience contributed to the decision to use positivism as most appropriate for this study. Additionally the questionnaire is the most common positivist instrument and the only one used to date in gift-giving research.
In taking a positivist perspective the researcher has to formulate and test hypotheses, focusing on facts and trying to locate causality between variables if possible (Easterby- Smith, Thorpe and Lowe 1991). Processes involve operationalizing concepts so that they can be measured from larger samples from which to generalise to the population otherwise termed quantitative methods. The methodological path which has been selected for this study is outlined in table 4.4 taking into account the implied objectivist ontology, positivist epistemology and the adapted research onion model (figure 4.1 ) of Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2012). It outlines the objective route suggesting a questionnaire method, with a cross sectional sample prior to data analysis and interpretation. A need exists to identify factual information on the respondents buying practices, the importance of sources of information, the importance and concerns of giving, gift-giving motivations and feelings, the relationship aspects of gifting and the demographic information. These being the key sections and gaps discussed in chapter 3.
Table 4.4 The methods path for the research
The Methods Path
Ontology Objective
Epistemology Positivist
Positivism - a framework in which the nature of rationality can be determined. A “focus on the meanings that people give to their
environment” (May 2001 p. 14) Methodological
Approach
Quantitative and deductive
letting the “facts speak for themselves” (Bulmer 1982 p. 31). Unit of Analysis Adults of children aged 11 and under
Method of Data Collection
Exploratory interviews to inform questionnaire development Questionnaire
Method of Data
Analysis Statistical Analysis
Author generated 2014 and adapted from May 2001; Bulmer 1982
The qualitative information required lends itself to an informative stage to test the ideas for the sections within the questionnaire. Once analysed via content analysis the
exploratory interviews will inform and support the questionnaire development. Finally the questionnaire analysis will be conducted via SPSSv 17 which is a tried and tested norm for this kind of data extrapolation. The direction of the whole topic is refreshed in figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2 The direction of the topic
Conduct literature review
Take into account consumer behaviour literature Take into account the gift-giving literature
Take into account the toy sector
Propose objectives of research and hypotheses based on exploratory research and findings from the literature review
Theses aim– critically evaluate the differences in buying practices of consumers when purchasing/buying toys as gifts for children under the age of 11 at two important ‘rites
of passage’ times, Christmas and Birthdays
Consider other methodological approaches adopted
Adopt an appropriate methodology, one which is suitably rigorous to meet the hypotheses needs
Includes:
Qualitative – Artwork drawings were considered but rejected in chapter 2
Qualitative – interviews to support the questionnaire development chapter 4
Questionnaire – with a variety of questions but using Likert scales
Conduct research based on a sound methodological approach
Consider probability (“possible to express the mathematical probability of sample characteristics being produced in the population”, May 2001 p. 93) and non probability
(when a suitable sample frame is not available) sample techniques
Consider sample frame, population, realising the limitations of the research i.e. what it can and cannot do
Analyse findings
Using appropriate tried and tested methods
Qualitative methods – Analysed by qualitative content analysis, thematic Quantitative – Analysed by computer package SPSSv17. Test for significance
Present findings in a clear and logical manner Relate to literature review
Add to body of knowledge by providing new knowledge Which is generalisable and repeatable
4.5 Research plan and design
Having highlighted the ontology, epistemology and methodological path in the previous sections the following sections concentrate on the actual research plan and design prior to outlining the development and distribution of the questionnaire. Planning the research is important to ensure that justified methods are adopted to fit the needs of the research. A research plan adapted from Niglas (2004) (figure 4.3) identifies the stages and is expanded upon in section 4.5.1.
Figure 4.3 Stages in the research plan
Practical steps
Research problem (s) or question (s), Aim (s) of the research
Strategy/Design
Sampling
Data Analysis method (s) Data collection
method (s)
Interpretation of the results, Drawing conclusions
Preliminary systematization and/or coding
Data analysis
Interpretations of the results Preparing the instrument Taking steps to avoid bias Gathering the data Choosing the sample Gaining access
Adapted from Niglas 2004. The combined use of qualitative and quantitative methods in educational research. dissertation, Tallinn, Estonia: Faculty of Educational Sciences Tallinn Pedagogical University p. 12.
4.5.1 Stages of the plan
The initial stages of the plan included the practical steps and research problems which relate to the literature review. In chapter 3 the ratification of the literature and the subsequent development of the hypotheses for adding to the body of knowledge were
discussed. This supports the need for the research as gaps have been identified. The second stage of the plan is the design of the research including the research design itself, sampling and data collection methods. Thus it covers areas such as method choice and justification (research approach), choice of sampling technique, designing the instrument/s and consideration of data analysis.
Of the three research approaches, exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory mentioned by Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2012), exploratory is trying to find out “what is happening; to seek new insights; to ask questions and to assess phenomena in a new light” (Robson 2002 p. 59), explanatory is more deductive in nature trying to explain relationships between variables, whilst descriptive extends a previous piece of research (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill 2012).
Taking the points highlighted before into account, face to face interviews were selected as a suitable preliminary research method. They allow for the probing of interviewees for responses, in this case forming an informative phase in respect of the questionnaire sections identified and in developing the questionnaire, the explanatory approach. As postal questionnaires had been used before with success (Clarke 2003) and a reasonable response rate achieved and in taking into account the sample required of adults with children aged 11 and under and the researchers positivist epistemology this was the most obvious choice for the research.
Sampling relates to justifying the technique used and whether a probability or non probability approach has been taken. Non-probability techniques are sampling “designs where the likelihood of each population being included in the sample cannot be known” (Easterby-Smith, Thorpe and Jackson. 2008 p. 330) and probability techniques are the reverse i.e. the sample is known (Easterby-Smith, Thorpe and Jackson 2008). Eight sub techniques exist (figure 4.4), which have advantages and disadvantages, and these are outlined in tables 4.5 and 4.6.
Figure 4.4 Sampling techniques Sampling Techniques Sampling Techniques Non Probability Sampling Techniques Non Probability Sampling Techniques Probability Sampling Techniques Probability Sampling Techniques Convenience Sampling Convenience Sampling Judgemental Sampling Judgemental Sampling Quota- SamplingQuota- Sampling Snowball Sampling Snowball Sampling Simple Random Sampling Simple Random Sampling Systematic Sampling Systematic Sampling Stratified Sampling Stratified Sampling Cluster SamplingCluster Sampling Proportionate Proportionate Dis proportionateDis
proportionate One StageOne Stage Two StageTwo Stage
Author generated
Table 4.5 Advantages and disadvantages of probability sampling
Probability Sampling Advantages Disadvantages
Simple random sampling (SRS)
Each element in population has a known and equal probability of selection (lottery technique or table of random numbers)
Easily understood
Results can be projected to the target population
Often difficult to construct a sampling frame
Can result in samples spread over large geographic areas Timely and costly May or may not result in a representative sample Systematic sampling
Select a random starting point and then pick every ith element in succession i = N/n. Each population element has known and equal probability of selection
If sampling frame is ordered can increase representativeness of sample. Less costly and easier than SRS. Can result in a more representative and reliable sample than SRS Can be used without knowledge of composition of sampling frame
If sampling frame is not ordered – does not necessarily result in representative sample
Stratified sampling
2 step process: population portioned into mutually and collectively exhaustive strata (e.g. sex). Elements selected from each stratum by random procedure
Sample elements selected probabilistically (rather than convenience or judgement) Increased precision without cost Cluster sampling
Divide target population into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive clusters.
Random sample of clusters selected
For each cluster, either all elements are included in the sample (one stage cluster samplers) or a sample of elements is drawn probabilistically – (2 stage cluster sampling)
Increases precision. Low cost and feasible. Most cost effective probability sampling technique
Can result in imprecise sample (difficult to form heterogeneous elements within clusters)
Table 4.6 Advantages and disadvantages of non probability sampling
Disadvantages Advantages
Non Probability Sampling
Can not generalise to a wider population
Increased likelihood of locating the desired characteristic of the population
Fairly low sampling variance Fairly low costs
Snowball sampling
Initial group selected randomly Subsequent respondents based on referrals
No assurance sample is representative Bias potentially present Try to obtain representative
examples Low costs Greater convenience Quota sampling
2 stage restricted judgemental sampling
Quotas developed (demos)
Does not allow
generalisations to a specific population
Subjective value depends on researcher's judgement and expertise Low cost Convenience Speed Judgmental sampling Purposively selected on judgement or expertise of researcher because believed they are representative of the population
Potential source of selection bias
Not representative therefore cannot generalise to any population
Least expensive Least time consuming
Sample members accessible, easy to measure, co-operative Convenience sampling
Sample elements in the right place at the right time
Author generated 2010
The sampling method for this research took a non probability approach with a convenience and quota element. This is further discussed in section 4.11 and 4.11.1.
The data analysis and the interpretation of results are the last steps in the final phase of the research plan (figure 4.3). Qualitative data analysis took the form of using an inductive approach where analysis was conducted through the use of conceptualisation, in other words exploration of the interview transcripts “to see which themes or issues to follow up and concentrate on (Glaser and Strauss 1967; Schatzman and Strauss 1973; Strauss and Corbin 2008 and Yin 2003)” (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill 2009 p. 490). For the quantitative analysis the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences v 17 (SPSS) was used in conjunction with the appropriate tests. Tests included checking frequencies, checking for parametric or non-parametric distribution, testing for significance or association between variables using Pearson Chi Square (tests for relationship), Kruskal Wallis (comparing two or more samples), Mann Whitney (testing ordinal data for two independent samples which are different), Independent T tests (testing the values of the means from two samples), Cronbach Alpha (to test reliability), Factor Analyses (to test variability) and Spearman Correlation (strength of relationships between two ranked data variables). The findings were interpreted with respect to the literature review to add
to the body of knowledge as is expected at this level and are further discussed in chapters 5, 6 and 7.
4.6 The research process
As a reminder the research process has already involved an exploratory phase where artwork was conducted with children and interviews with adults to identify the issues in researching with children. A process diagram is shown in figure 4.5 identifying how the research stages build on from one another and acting as a refresher by placing the first set of interviews in the figure. This figure will be replicated throughout the rest of the chapter where relevant to highlight the stage being discussed. Numbers are included in the figure to show the number of respondents.
Figure 4.5 the actual research process
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase3 Literature Review Use of Children in study Nursery artwork pilot N 1 = 28 and N 2=22 Interview 1 Working with children N= 5 Phase 1 Interview 3 Gift giving of toys N = 6 Phase 2b Questionnaire Development QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE Interview 2 gift giving in general N = 5 Phase 2 a Literature Review Hypothesis development from literature Supported by some qualitative findings Pilot Questionnaire N = 36 from 60 C 60% response rate Content Analysis of interview 1 Phase 1 Content Analysis of interview 2 Phase 2a Distribute refined Questionnaire N = 613 from 1595 C 38% response rate Content Analysis of interview 3 Phase 2b
Author generated 2009, revised 2014 adapted from Clarke 2003
4.7 Second qualitative research phase two interviews – gift-giving (figure 4.5 a)
The second interview phase consisted of interview numbers 2 and 3, where interview 2 examined respondent’s thoughts on gift-giving in general and interview 3 focused on giving toys as gifts to children aged 11 and under. The same procedures were used for interviewee selection and interview analysis as used for interview one (chapter 2).
Figure 4.5 (a) the actual research process Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase3 Literature Review Use of Children in study Nursery artwork pilot N 1 = 28 and N 2=22 Interview 1 Working with children N= 5 Phase 1 Interview 3 Gift giving of toys N = 6 Phase 2b Questionnaire Development QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE Interview 2 gift giving in general N = 5 Phase 2 a Literature Review Hypothesis development from literature Supported by some qualitative findings Pilot Questionnaire N = 36 from 60 C 60% response rate Content Analysis of interview 1 Phase 1 Content Analysis of interview 2 Phase 2a Distribute refined Questionnaire N = 613 from 1595 C 38% response rate Content Analysis of interview 3 Phase 2b
Author generated 2009, revised 2014 adapted from Clarke 2003
4.7.1 Interview development for interview phases 2a and 2b
The interview agenda for interview two, phase 2a and interview three, phase 2b were adapted/modified from the work of Hill and Romm (1996), Ruth, Otnes and Brunel (1999) and Pieters and Robben (1998). Hill and Romm’s (1996) research, via an inductive semi-structured interview (table 4.7), examined the role of mothers as gift- givers extending Sherry’s (1983) work in “which gift-giving behaviour is conceptualised as a process consisting of four elements: being; motivation, selection, presentation and reaction” Hill and Romm (1996 p. 21).
Hill and Romm’s (1996) research did not mention the reformulation aspects of gift- giving, whereas Ruth, Otnes and Brunel (1999) did examine gift receipt and the reformulation of interpersonal relationships. Their conceptual framework focused on “the importance in the gift exchange” (Ruth, Otnes and Brunel 1999 p. 386), and the research revealed that “social and ritual surroundings of a gift experience can impact on
the way a gift is received and its ultimate impact on the relationship” (Ruth, Otnes and Brunel 1999 p. 399). Pieters and Robben’s (1998) evaluation of gifts received identified that the “relationship was deemed closer when an appropriate gift was received than when an inappropriate gift was received” (Pieters and Robben 1998 p. 167). They further identified that “gifts from an older, same gender person are preferred to all other reception situations” (Pieters and Robben 1998 p. 165). These themes were built into the final interview schedule (appendices 3 and 4, table 4.7).
Table 4.7 Interview agenda of Hill and Romm 1996
Gifts from mothers to children
1
Gift-giving motivation
Justification: Why do you buy gifts for your children? (short term versus long terns goals)
Significance: What makes a gift important? (prestige, money, practical) Timing: When are gifts usually given in your family?
2
Gift-giving selection
Involvement: Describe how you select gifts for your family? (time and effort) Family Influences: Does anyone else in the family influence your decisions? (bartering with children, husband power of veto, single or joint gift selection) Promotional Influences: Are you influenced by brand names? (sales
merchandise, point – of – sale material, Sales staff, newspapers)
Gift Attributes: What is the most important thing for you when buying a gift?