The ability to interpret a jazz ensemble drum chart requires a relative degree of improvisational skill and ability to play by ear. McPherson et al. (1997) conducted a path analysis of their theoretical model based on the relationship between five key musical skills, one of which was improvisation:
The results of this study support an increasing body of knowledge suggesting that learning to perform music should involve the types of visual, aural, and creative forms of performance examined here, and that these forms of performance are a
fundamental means by which musicians learn to coordinate ear, eye, and hand and to perform on their instrument what they see in notation and hear or imagine in their mind. Training programs that do not recognize the importance of aural and creative forms of musical performance may be neglecting an important facet of training that enhances overall musical growth and that provides for more enjoyable and
meaningful experiences. (p. 126)
Woody (2012) points out the problem with an over reliance on printed music: This aspect of musicianship has traditionally gone underdeveloped by school music instruction. In instrumental music classrooms, for instance, it is not uncommon for every note that students play to be by a printed page before them. If this is the exclusive classroom routine, students run the risk of never adding to their
performance range the ability to play by ear, improvise, and perform pieces from memory. While notation-guided performance offers opportunities for aural skill development, it has limitations. (p. 82)
Priest (1989) conducted a study into the benefits of learning to play by ear, and while not referring specifically to drum set, he described the positive impact that it can have on a student’s sight-reading ability. He stated that when students who can already read music work through ear training methods, their sight-reading is measurably improved (p. 175). Elliot (1996) discusses the fact that improvisation isn’t exclusive to jazz. However his comments on the interpretive processes involved with jazz seem to expand on Priest (1989) “knowing how to make musical judgments depends on a situational understanding of the standards and traditions of musical practice that ground and surround specific kinds of music- making” (p. 9). As a form of jazz teaching pedagogy, it could be concluded that ear training or more specifically listening to jazz helps with reading, interpreting and improvising within the music.
Kratus (1995) discussed the developmental pathway of a student from what he calls “process oriented improvisation” to “product oriented improvisation”:
First, the student becomes more aware of music in the environment and begins to structure her own improvisations to be more like the music she hears. Second, the student becomes aware that music can be shared with other people and that others value music as a product. This awareness results in the student improvising with a greater emphasis on musical structure, enabling others to derive meaning from the music. A teacher can hear this shift from process to product when the student’s improvisations begin to show such characteristics as the use of consistent tonality or metre, the use of a steady beat, the use of phrases or references to other musical pieces or stylistic traits. (p. 33)
Gruenhagen and Whitcomb (2013) conducted a study which looked at
improvisational practices in elementary general music class. They observed the extent to which this type of activity occurred, the nature of the activity and also how teachers perceived the quality of the outcome from an educational perspective. They stated that:
The most commonly reported improvisational activity was improvising on unpitched percussion instruments [92%], followed by improvising rhythmic patterns using instruments [88%] and call-and-response/question-and-answer singing [87%]. (p. 3) In the conclusion of the study, Gruenhagen and Whitcomb (2013) stated:
While some put less importance and priority on improvisation, the majority perceived it as necessary to the development of students’ musical skills, as an important way for students to show musical understanding, and as an empowering creative process that produces independent thinkers and musicians. (p. 2)
The literature cited above indicates that improvisation is generally recognised as an important factor in music education. However, Greig and Lowe (2014) described a low uptake of the short lived specialist jazz teacher training course run in the 1990s at Edith Cowan University in WA (p. 53). As jazz improvisation is usually seen as a jazz specialist skill, by implication there are many large jazz ensembles operating in WA secondary schools whose directors are non-jazz specialists, and who may shy away from improvisation.
Fidyk (2014) states, “For many middle school and high school percussionists, their first exposure to jazz drumming is within the context of a traditional, 17-piece, big band rehearsal” (p. 46). Regarding the unique nature of the drum set role in a large jazz ensemble,
Performing in a jazz ensemble requires the student to read, provide a firm pulse for the band, and interpret the written music notation, style form, dynamics and
articulations. In an instant the drummer should take the written part and interpret it to the many surfaces of the instrument. (p. 46)
This raises an important point of difference about the interpretive nature of drum set chart reading in a jazz ensemble as opposed to the more literal nature of reading that occurs on all other instruments. Fidyk (2014) also states “Because interpretation is such an important element in jazz drumming, it’s essential to listen to the music you’re performing in order to gain a better understanding of the musical style and concept” (p. 46). Erskine and Mattingly (1998) echo this statement:
If you’re going to play a chart in a big band and that chart has been recorded, listen to the recording and notice how that drummer interpreted the part. There are no rules when it comes to drum set reading. In fact, I think that the most important element for a drummer to have in reading a drum chart is a good pair of ears. Listen to what the rest of the band is doing. And if you’ve got the opportunity to study someone else’s interpretation, then take advantage of it. Interpretation is what drum set reading is all about. (p. 24)
In reference to drum set teaching, Erskine and Mattingly (1998) state that “It is
essential to get drummers to think of ways to contribute compositionally to the progression of any piece of music. What is played is important – every big and little bit of it” (p. 49).
The specialist jazz and jazz drum set knowledge required to support the learning of drum set improvisation is central to the research problem. Improvisation and chart
interpretation are important aspects of music and more specifically drum set education. Having identified that some teachers who run large jazz ensembles in WA secondary schools may lack specific jazz training and jazz drum set knowledge, the literature review now turns from musical and jazz-specific skills to personal attributes required by drum set students for ensemble success, and the role the ensemble director plays in developing these attributes.