Technology-Organisation-Environment (TOE) Model

TOE framework serves as an important theoretical perspective for studying contextual factors (Tornatzky and Fleischer, 1990). Tornatzky and Fleischer (1990) identified three contexts that influence the organisation’s assimilation process of a technological innovation: (a) Technological context is used as taxonomy for categorising determinates related to the technology characteristics’ influence adoption. (b) Organisational context includes a set of determinates related to the internal organisation’s characteristics that constrain or facilitate adoption and implementation, such as top-management behaviour, organisational size, quality and availability of human resources, availability of financial resources, and managerial structures. (c) Environmental context is the arena in which an organisation provides it services––its industry, competitors, and dealings with other government agencies (Tornatzky and Fleischer 1990, p.152-154).

This framework (c.f. figure 2.9, below) is consistent with the innovation diffusion theory of Rogers (1995, p.376-383) in which he accentuated technological characteristics, and both the internal and external characteristics of the organisation, as drivers for technology diffusion. The author develops a model for this study’s theoretical framework based on a synthesis of two theoretical perspectives – the Organisation Innovation Process (OIP) theory (Rogers, 2003) that emphasises on the stages of organisational adoption and implementation processes, and the technology– organisation–environment (TOE) framework (Tornatzky & Fleischer, 1990) that emphasises the context of technological innovation.

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Figure (2-9): Schematics of TOE model, Reproduction of "Figure 7-1. The Context of Technological Innovation" from Tornatzky and Fleischer (1990, p. 153).

While the TOE model has been extensively utilised in present IS and IT research (Krishnan and Teo, 2011), it is often criticised for its incapability to provide the theoretical grounds to establish causal relationships (Mishra et al., 2007). Meanwhile, the TOE model provides a straightforward yet crafty taxonomy for capturing the extensiveness of the pursued variables (Mishra et al., 2007). Furthermore, recent IS/IT literature has attempted to combine the best attributes of the (TOE) model with other theories (c.f. table 2.8, below).

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Table (2-8): Modified DOI and TOE framework used in studying Technological innovations. (Source, Author)

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Table (2.9) above, depicts several authors using an integrated framework comprised of Roger’s (IOP) framework with the (TOE) model to understand the adoption processes of an assortment of technologically enabled innovations. For instance, Chong et al. (2009) used the aforementioned integrated framework to examine the determinants of collaborative commerce (C-commerce) adoption among electronic organisations in Malaysia, their research came to the conclusion that the information sharing culture factor had the strongest influence on the adoption of c-commerce, followed by organisation readiness and external environment (Chong et al., 2009).

Meanwhile, Pudjianto and Hangjung, (2009) coined diffusion theory with TOE framework to explain how the assimilation process of e-government initiatives is affected by determinates such as: ICT expertise, ICT infrastructure, top management support, organisational compatibility, extend coordination, regulatory environment, and competition. (Pudjianto and Hangjung, 2009).

Similarly, other scholars have used the integrated (IOP) and (TOE) framework to study: E-commerce (Aghaunor and Xavieria, 2006; Zhu, et. al, 2006b); Public E- services (Arendsen et. al, 2008); and Electronic Customs Services (Raus, 2010) and others (c.f. Zhu and Kraemer, 2005). Table (2.9) above, presents a summary of the variables analysed, methods used, data, and context of empirical studies that employed the aforementioned integrated model.

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Several scholars posit that using Rogers’s theory of (DOI) with combination with (TOE) model would provide a useful theoretical framework to explain the organisation adoption of e-government initiatives (e.g Lippert and Govindarajulu, 2006; Mohamad and Ismail, 2009; Ramdani et al., 2009). Al-Qirim (2007) maintains that such an approach could provide strong empirical support to e-government adoption research and account for the technological, organisational, and external influencing e-government adoption among public organisations (Al-Qirim, 2007).

At this stage of the research, this study responds to the theoretical needs expressed in the outset of this chapter by congregating a theoretical framework that enables the researcher to understand the distinguished stages of e-services’ development process in Dubai public organisations. The combined theoretical frameworks (IOP) and (TOE) allows the researcher to explore and understand the nature of e-services’ assimilation process as well as to permits him to identify and categorise the attributes that would influence the decision making at early stages of the adoption process and at the later stages of implementation process. Hence, Roger’s (2003) Organisation Innovation Process (OIP) theory is complemented by the: organisational environmental and technological contexts posited by Tornatzky and Fleischer (1990).

The purpose of incorporating Tornatzky and Fleischer (1990) model into this study’s conceptual framework is to provide a key apparatus for capturing and understanding the development process of e-services as a multifaceted process from different perspectives, using different contexts. Each context is populated with attributes which are considered to influence the adoption and implementation process of the innovation understudy.

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The Tornatzky and Fleischer (1990) model is regarded as complementary rather than an alternative to Rogers’ (2003) framework. Furthermore, the adoption and implementation process of e-services is regarded as a complex development process and, hence, it is viewed in this study as a ‘process evolving through feedback loops and not in a linear manner’ (Rogers et al., 2005, p. 10). In the next section, the author attempts to present a summary of the attributes from the literature review affiliated with the adoption and implementation of technologically enabled innovations such as e-services and similar internet enabled innovations.

2.4  Determinants  of  E-­services  Adoption  and  Implementation    

Wolfe (1994) argues that innovation adoption is complex and context-sensitive. Environmental and organisational context factors as well as technology or innovation related ones play a significant role (Wolfe, 1994, Elliot, 2002, Al-Qirim, 2003). In relevance to the previous section, the author deduced that Technology-Organisation- Environment contexts proposed by Tornatzky and Fleischer (1990) is a suitable model that could aid the researcher in his endeavor to capture key influential attributes and understand the development process of e-government initiatives in Dubai’s public agencies. Contextual factors are considered vital in shaping the adoption and implementation processes of innovations and regarded as a critical aspect that cuts across all facets of the diffusion theory (Rogers, 2003). However, the constituents of these contexts (Technology-Organisation-Environment) should be explained and manipulated in the light of the current e-government initiatives’ assimilation literature and the adoption an implementation of similar technological enabled innovations; new services development (NDS), web services and e-business; considering there the lack of a predominant model or framework on the topic of e-services development.