Template analysis

Within qualitative research, various approaches to analysis and interpretation of data have developed (Braun and Clarke 2006; Easterby-Smith et al. 2012). Consideration of the most appropriate analysis approach is important prior to the commencement of data collection and assessment; furthermore, these approaches can guide the data reduction strategy used and allow the researcher to organise and refine large amounts of qualitative data into a form conducive to effective empirical use (Sang and Sitko 2015).

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Qualitative analysis approaches include thematic and discourse analysis, grounded theory, and the template analysis procedure used in this research (Bryman and Bell 2007; Sang and Sitko 2015). These approaches are briefly described in Table 34 below.

Table 34: Qualitative Data Analysis Approaches

Approach Description Sources

Grounded Theory

Inductive in nature, involves a constant degree of iteration between analysis and collection of data, thus it can be time consuming and requires a high degree of competency of the researcher. The resultant categories emerging from the data constitute developing theory.

Creswell 2009; Easterby-Smith et al. 2012; Sang and Sitko 2015; Strauss and Corbin 1994; Willig 2013

Thematic Analysis

Is not guided by the literature, but involves identifying themes arising in the data, methodically. Themes are not derived from literature, but solely from the empirical data. The resultant reported themes constitute the identified contribution of the research.

Braun and Clarke 2006; Sang and Sitko 2015; Willig 2013

Discourse Analysis

Focused upon analysing the role of linguistic patterns within a data set. For example, assessing sentence structure and speaker order in relation to power establishment. Demands a particular approach be taken to interpretation and transcription of data.

Easterby-Smith et al. 2012; Fairclough 2010; Sang and Sitko 2015; Willig 2013

Template Analysis

Represents an approach where codes can be established (as a template) ‘a priori’ based upon the literature, aiding subsequent analysis and categorisation. Furthermore, additional ‘posteriori’ themes, emerging from the empirical data analysis can feedback into the template to develop new theory.

Butler et al. 2013; King 2004, King 2012; Sang and Sitko 2015

Consequently, Table 34 shows template analysis was the most appropriate analysis approach for this research as it allowed for the theoretical model developed presented in Figure 4 (developed from the literature) to be explored further, while remaining open to newly emerging themes in the data. In the initial stage of template analysis, the researcher commences a coding process whereby interview data is categorised, organised, and arranged into a usable and manageable form in which empirical evidence for research questions can be determined (King 2004; Sang and Sitko 2015). Integral to this process of analysis, is the guiding ‘template’. Essentially, the template is derived from the extant literature and mandates the subsequent categorisation of the collected empirical data (Butler et al. 2013). In other words, the template allows the researcher to organise collected data, facilitate data collection and analysis, and ultimately allow for insights into particular research areas (Sang and Sitko 2015).

Template analysis possesses a particular strength in that it allows the researcher to identify both ‘a priori’ and ‘a posteriori’ themes (Crabtree and Miller 1999; Sang and Sitko 2015). ‘A priori’ themes denote those identified before the empirical data is analysed, are derived from preceding relevant literature, and constitute the template itself.

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Identification of their presence or absence within empirical data can contribute to researcher understanding of the relevance of their themes, perhaps stimulating conclusions regarding their theoretical relevance in particular contexts (King 2004). Additionally, ‘a posteriori’ themes are those which emerge organically within the collected data having previously not been identified within the relevant literature (Butler et al. 2013; King 2004). Within template analysis, the researcher can modify and augment the template to include emergent themes identified throughout the interpretation process (Eisenhardt 1989; King 2004). Thus, identifying emergent themes allows the researcher to make a substantive contribution to the literature and can constitute avenues of further research (Butler et al. 2013).

Aiding the research, and in keeping with the template analysis approach used, the formulation of a coding scheme was required. The codes were derived from the literature prior to the empirical stages of the research and, thus, echoed the theoretical model empirically tested in phase 1 of this research (see Figure 4). Noted challenges associated with establishing an appropriate number of codes have been identified, emphasising that too many codes can spread the focus of the interview too thinly, and lead to weaker, non- conclusive information being unearthed (King 2004). Conversely, too few codes can contribute to the collection of highly focused, opaque data that is difficult to explore in a meaningful way (King 2004). Consequently, the researcher endeavoured to carefully consider such issues, and developed a template deemed to be of appropriate size (Table 35).

168 Table 35: Table of 'a priori themes'

Code Description Supporting Literature

Brand Heritage

Brand heritage comprises an organisation’s history, reputation, recognisability, staying power, and belief in the importance of its story. Brand heritage can lend credibility and gravitas to the purported values of an organisation.

Hakala et al. 2011; Urde et al. 2007; Wiedmann et al. 2011a; Wuestefeld et al. 2012

Communitas Communitas relates to a concentrated, highly intense feeling of social bonding, freed from typical societal constraints such as education, job status, and social class. Communitas represents a spirit of strong camaraderie.

Belk et al. 1989; Celsi et al. 1993; Di Giovine 2011; McGinnis et al. 2012; Sharpe 2005, Turner 1964

Brand Image Brand image consists of an outwardly projected and consciously manufactured image, comprising a mix of the following lower-order components: usefulness, efficiency, affect and dynamism.

Bennett and Gabriel 2003, Michel and Rieunier 2012, Mort et al. 2007 Volunteer Work Engagement

Understood as a positive, internal mental state toward undertaking tasks, work engagement consists of vigour (an energetic approach to work), absorption (concerned with concentration and well- being) and, finally, dedication (pertaining to notions of pride and endurance).

Bakker et al. 2008; Schaufeli et al. 2002; Vecina et al. 2012

Affective Commitment

Characterised by volunteers possessing strong, positive desires to remain a part of an organisation, affective commitment suggests strong emotional connections. Volunteers are likely to identify with the culture, aims, and goals of the organisation strongly on a personal level.

Allen and Meyer 1990; Cunningham 2001; Meyer et al. 2002; Vecina et al. 2013; Vecina et al. 2012 Satisfaction with Management

The level of satisfaction held by volunteers towards their management acts as an outcome variable, and can indicate systemic problems in the management approaches used, as well as the likelihood volunteers will leave an organisation.

Chacón 2007; Vecina et al. 2012; Vecina et al. 2009; Wilson 2012

In practice, the template derived from the literature informed the interview process. Thus, the researcher ensured that the interviews were focused upon the pertinent issues, and remained relevant to the phenomenon under study through the use of an interview guide (see appendix 4). Consequently, the researcher began the analysis process by first immersing himself in the data, and closely reading the interview transcripts multiple times, comprehending and honing understanding of their meanings. Through using an interview guide underpinned by literature, the collected data already had an inherent degree of structure and organisation, which further enabled the subsequent fragmentation process of the empirical data into the necessary categorical codes. This was completed by the researcher examining carefully each interview transcript and assigning the relevant codes to the appropriate areas of text. Echoing good practice (King 2004), and remaining faithful to the guiding theoretical model (Figure 4) a hierarchical coding structure was employed. The hierarchical structure manifests similarly to the higher/lower order conceptualisations of constructs within the structural model, where higher order thematic

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codes comprise a composite of several sub-dimensions. Consequently, as both brand image, and work engagement were conceptualised as higher-order, their sub-themes were also represented in the template analysis to allow for nuanced, potentially useful data to emerge (King 2004).

As previously discussed, an inherent advantage of template analysis is the ability for additional, previously unidentified themes to emerge, thus allowing both deductive and inductively derived themes to be identified (King 2004). In particular, this strength complements the quantitative research approach used in phase 1, where ten hypotheses were tested and validated in a primarily deductive manner (See section: 4.4). This aided the researcher in identifying elements of the interview transcripts that had not been previously noted in the literature, principally, the newly identified theme of ‘heritage custodianship’ emerged, vindicating the use of the flexible template analysis approach and contributing to the researcher’s overall ability to answer the research questions. The process of identifying the additional theme was carefully considered, and evidence supporting it clearly documented by the researcher. Furthermore, the researcher carefully ensured the additional theme was distinct from others, through assessment of any areas of overlap with previously identified themes, indeed during the whole analysis process the researcher carefully monitored the independence or otherwise of identifiable themes, and adjusted their categorisation appropriately.

Toward completing a template analysis researchers can now utilise a range of computer software. Software such as NVivo and CAQDAS (Easterby-Smith et al. 2012) is becoming increasingly popular and acceptable in published qualitative research. Consequently, the researcher assessed the strengths and weaknesses of such software, before making an informed decision to use a non-software based, manual approach. Inherent strengths of using software include it affording the researcher greater convenience by being able to sift through large amounts of text more easily using in-built search functions (Bryman and Bell 2007; King 2004). Furthermore, using software arguably facilitates increased accuracy and speed of analysis, derived in part through the software being unaffected by personal emotional investment that can otherwise influence a researcher’s findings, but also from its functionality being conducive to more systematic assessment and categorisation (Bryman and Bell 2007; Easterby-Smith et al. 2012; King 2004). On the other hand, the software approach has been variously criticised. For example, software can reduce the interactive nature of the relationship between the researcher and their data, resulting in a more clinical analysis process and potential

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detachment from the study (Bryman and Bell 2007; Gill and Johnson 2010). Furthermore, successful software-based research requires the researcher to possess a high level of competence in its use (Creswell 2009; Easterby-Smith et al. 2012). Given the time and budgetary constraints associated with the PhD process, the time and resources required to achieve this were not available. Essentially, given the qualitative analysis pertained to a smaller sample in a second phase of the overall research project, the researcher judged the use of specialised software would have little beneficial effect on the analysis and, indeed, could be potentially detrimental as the time and resources required for its use would reduce the overall time available for analysis. Consequently, the researcher analysed and coded the text manually.