The temporal patterning of combined imagery and self-talk use

When referring to the combined use of imagery and self-talk it is important to recognise that there was some variation in terms of their temporal patterning. To highlight this some of the golfers reported using imagery and self-talk together in combination whilst others stated that they found it impossible to do this and reported that there was a time lag between the use of the two strategies, i.e., they were used sequentially. This time lag was reported most when the strategies were used to facilitate shot selection. In particular, the golfers reported that the use of imagery often preceded self-talk use. This was also demonstrated in section 4.3.2.1. The participant quotes highlight this sequential use of the strategies.

“you see it and then you talk to yourself about it. You cannot talk to yourself before you see it.” (P5)

Far fewer golfers reported using self-talk first followed by imagery, with only one participant outlining a scenario where this would happen:

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“you could say to yourself, the wind‟s going to be affecting the ball it‟s going to go, right to left and then you could imagine the ball in the air and if it‟s not doing what you informed yourself it was going to do I suppose you could change it.” (P10)

In addition there was some suggestion by some of the players that the strategies were used in close proximity but not together. Quotes from participants 4 and 1 highlight this

“you might use self-talk to motivate yourself to get out the house on a rainy day, then you might use imagery on the practice ground to help with the technique and the imagery to help you with your game plan, and then at the end of the practice session you might give yourself positive self-talk because you‟ve achieved what you were trying to.”(P4)

“I use them separately. Pre shot routine, obviously practice swings so technical, so I‟m imagining it and then that comes after I‟ve imagined the shot, I imagine the shot first and then select my club and then practice swings, technical, and then just before I‟m stood over the ball, right deep breath and then you know „right let‟s do it‟ and stand over it.”(P1)

These quotes demonstrate clear individuality in the way in which golfers represent their use of imagery and self-talk in combination. However, the most commonly reported temporal patterning of the strategies was the use of imagery followed by self-talk to add clarity and correction.

4.4 Discussion

Findings from this investigation provided greater insight into the factors influencing golfers‟ use of imagery and self-talk in combination and isolation. In accordance with previous research, the golfers reported using both of the strategies in practice, competition and miscellaneous contexts with more being made of their use in competition (Hall et al., 1990; Hardy et al., 2001a; Hardy et al., 2005a; Munroe et al., 2000; Nordin & Cumming, 2005a). Previous authors have explained this common finding by suggesting that athletes place more emphasis on the use of imagery and self-talk for performance enhancement purposes than they do for the learning and execution of skills (Hall et al., 1990; Hardy et al., 2005a). Evidence for this suggestion was found in this study with the golfers reporting that their use of imagery and self-talk was far more technical in practice than in competition.

Further examination into the role that contextual factors played in golfers‟ use of imagery and self-talk in relation to competition revealed that they employed them, in combination

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and isolation, before, during and after competition. Moreover, more use was made of imagery and self-talk during competition rather than before or afterwards. This is in keeping with previous research into the contextual patterning of athletes‟ self-talk use (Hardy et al., 2001; Hardy et al., 2005a), but contrasts with much of the existing research into athletes‟ imagery use which has typically found that athletes predominantly employ imagery prior to competition (Hall et al., 1990). Golfers‟ greater use of imagery during competition, compared with athletes from other sports, may be explained by the unique nature of golf as a sport. Golf is, by definition, a self paced sport (Boutcher & Zinsser, 1990; Singer, 2000) and, as such, players are afforded plenty of time to go through routines or rituals (Singer, 2000). These routines and rituals may include the use of psychological strategies. The finding that golfers employed imagery more widely during competition is of particular importance, as many imagery interventions in the extant literature are designed for use in the pre competition period (Callow et al., 2001; Mellalieu et al., 2009; Nicholls et al., 2005c). As such, findings from this study highlight the need for research into the development of guidelines for imagery use during competition.

More in-depth examination of the role of contextual factors in imagery and self-talk use during competition revealed that both of the strategies were used widely, in combination and isolation, in a variety of different competitive situations. The use of both imagery and self- talk, independently and together, was most frequently reported in the vicinity of the golf ball prior to the execution of a variety of golf strokes. During this time period golfers reported imagining and talking themselves through the production of golf strokes to facilitate the selection of the most appropriate shot for the situation. Furthermore, whilst a few of the golfers reported the usage of imagery and self-talk prior to the production of every golf stroke, the majority reported employing them only when playing certain shots. For example, a number of the golfers emphasised the use of the strategies when they were challenged with difficult shots, others when putting and usage was consistently reported off the first tee. Golfers‟ employment of imagery and self-talk prior to the production of certain golf strokes only, was in direct contrast with existing recommendations that golfers should use them prior to every golf stroke as part of a pre-shot routine (Boutcher & Rotella, 1987). However, Bernier and Fournier (2010) recently found that golfers used imagery more on short shots. Whilst some of the golfers in the current study emphasised the use of imagery and self-talk on shots played onto the green, others did not, which suggested that there were wider functional requirements or task demands associated with the shots where they emphasised their usage. As such, further research was required to determine what the shared

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characteristics of these golf strokes were in order to provide an indication as to why the use of imagery and self-talk was warranted.

Along with golfers making more use of imagery and self-talk prior to the production of specific golf strokes, they also emphasised their use in more general competitive situations. Examples included the first few holes, when playing badly and last few holes of a competition. Furthermore, the use of self-talk, unlike imagery, was employed when walking between golf strokes. Previous research has generally failed to examine how golfers utilise psychological strategies before or after golf strokes with the focus often being placed only on the pre shot routine period (Hellstrȍm, 2009). It is widely acknowledged that the extensive amount of thinking time during the walk between shots in golf can lead to the onset of negative or inappropriate thoughts (Kirschenbaum et al., 1998; Nicholls et al., 2005a; Pates et al., 2001). With this in mind, a number of the golfers alluded to the fact that they used self-talk during this time to combat nervous thoughts and keep themselves calm and motivated.

The findings from this study appeared to suggest that context was a determinant of the functions served by imagery. This supported the first stage of Fournier et al “s (2008) model of imagery which presents situational demands as the primary directive of the functions served by the strategy. Whilst less attention has been paid to the role that contextual factors play in self-talk use, findings likewise indicated that they determined the functions served by the strategy. This appears to support an extension of Fournier et al “s model to include self- talk. Further examination is therefore required into the competitive situations where golfers emphasise the use of imagery and self-talk in combination and isolation.

Whilst contextual factors were found to influence the functions served by imagery and self- talk, the functional requirements themselves were in turn then found to influence athlete preferences for the use of the strategies and the way in which they were represented. To illustrate this, a number of the golfers stressed the importance of imagery over self-talk in serving technical functions. In particular, the use of kinaesthetic imagery was emphasised to facilitate the execution of the golf swing. This was unsurprising, given that golf is a sport based very much on „feel‟ (Gallwey, 1979; Lee, 1998). It is likely that golfers emphasised the use of imagery for serving this function because, unlike self-talk, it can be used to

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replicate the „feel‟ of shots and might also be less likely to cause the over conscious analysis of skills. Early proposals for the use of self-talk in golf suggested that golfers should use „swing‟ statements during the pre-shot routine (Boutcher & Rotella, 1987; Cohn, Rotella, & Lloyd, 1990). It is however, now widely acknowledged that the overuse of internal technical self-talk prior to the production of skills can lead to performance decrements because it can lead to a reinvestment in the production of skills to a cognitive stage of learning (Mullen & Hardy, 2000; Zinsser et al., 2010). This is, however, not an issue associated with the use of imagery. Furthermore, it has been suggested that imagery can invoke the autonomous execution of skills (Gallwey, 1979) which is of benefit to performance (Cohn, 1990; McCaffrey & Orlick, 1989). Consequently, given the issues associated with internal instructional self-talk, and the relationship that imagery usage shares with automaticity, is of little surprise that golfers demonstrated a preference for using kinaesthetic imagery when serving technical functions.

Although the golfers emphasised the use of imagery over self-talk for facilitating the execution of the golf swing, they widely reported the use of both of the strategies in combination to facilitate the selection of strokes/shots. When deciding upon which stroke/shot to play, the golfers widely reported adopting an external focus, from a variety of perspectives, to imagine different shot options, before selecting the most appropriate for the given situation. This finding replicates previous research by Bernier and Fournier (2010) but is unique in that the golfers in the current study reported using self-talk to both correct and affirm the stroke/shots that they were going to play. Kendall et al. (1990) previously suggested that self-talk should be used with imagery in this way. Moreover, the dual coding theory (Paivio, 1986) also lends theoretical support to the interaction between the strategies in this way. Paivio (1986) argued that for evaluative functions, such as selecting the most appropriate shot to play, self-talk could be used to invoke and manipulate images.

A further finding of interest regarding the use of the strategies in facilitating the selection of golf strokes was the process of „weighing-up‟ the best shot to play. This is of particular relevance because imagery and self-talk scripts often do not permit athletes the flexibility to modify the skills that they have imagined. Instead, they are often instructed to imagine, or talk themselves through, one outcome. Weinberg et al. (2003) have previously suggested that there may be a need to move away from the use of such prescriptive imagery scripts, and the same may be true for self-talk, as athletes are presented with a wide and varying range of situations. There is however, limited evidence for this approach.

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Imagery and self-talk, in combination and isolation, were also found to serve a variety of motivational functions. Firstly, both strategies were used in combination and isolation to increase drive and effort, although some of the golfers did emphasise the use of self-talk over imagery for serving this function during competition. This was in accordance with research conducted by Gammage et al. (2001) and Hardy et al. (2001a) which found that athletes and exercisers reported that motivational self-talk was one of the most widely applied self-talk types. A potential explanation for the emphasis that the golfers placed on self-talk for serving motivational functions during competition, may be that they find the use of motivational imagery during competition to be debilitative. Traditionally, it has been suggested that when an athlete is seeking to increase their motivation, they should imagine the outcome goal that they want to achieve (Hall et al., 1998; Paivio, 1985). Although this seems like a logical and appealing proposition, golfers may actually find employing this mode of imagery during competition is harmful to performance. This is because, in accordance with previous research (McCaffrey & Orlick, 1989), findings from the current study revealed that golfers place great importance on „staying in the moment‟ when playing golf. As such, although the use of MS imagery prior to competition may be beneficial, its use during competition may be unhelpful. Consequently, this may explain the golfers‟ preference for using motivational self-talk during competition, as it is an effortless strategy which can provide quick encouragement whilst at the same time allowing golfers to „stay in the moment.‟

As well as serving motivational functions, the golfers also reported the use of both strategies, independently and in combination during competition, to control anxiety and reduce stress. Previous research has found that golfers perceive being mentally calm and in control as central to performance (Cohn, 1990). There was considerable variation between the golfers in the way in which they used the strategies to control anxiety. For example, some of the golfers reported that the simple imagination of the stroke/shot could be used to control cognitive anxiety, whilst some placed more emphasis on the use of self-talk, and others reported using the two strategies in combination. Interestingly, the nature of the context was found to be influential in the way that the strategies were used to serve this function. When walking between shots, a number of the golfers reported using self-talk to control their anxiety suggesting that it was often difficult to control their imagery when under pressure in this situation. During this walking period, a number of the golfers alluded to the fact that they used self-talk to override negative imagery and thoughts. Earlier

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research by Cumming et al. (2006) lent support to the use of the strategy in this way when they found that facilitative self-talk could be used to combat debilitative imagery and self- talk. In contrast, when golfers experienced the onset of cognitive anxiety just prior to the execution of a golf stroke, they more frequently reported the simple imagination of the shot, in isolation or in combination with self-talk, to inoculate it. These findings appear to suggest that the „thinking time‟ when walking between shots may be the determining factor in the different ways in which golfers employed imagery and self-talk to inoculate against anxiety.

Interestingly, it was also found that golfers emphasised the use of self-talk over imagery as a means to relieve stress. This finding is consistent with Van Raalte et al. (2000) who previously found that tennis players frequently used self-talk in this way after the production of a bad tennis stroke. It has been suggested that self-talk is a quicker and easier strategy to apply than imagery (Hardy et al., 2005a). As such, when an instant release of stress is required after the production of a bad shot, golfers may prefer the use of self-talk.

Imagery and self-talk were found to serve an array of mastery functions although the golfers widely emphasised the role that the strategies, in combination and isolation, played in increasing positivity and confidence. Interestingly, the golfers reported employing a variety of different imagery and self-talk types for serving this function. For example, the simple imagination of a golf stroke before they played it was deemed to serve confidence enhancing functions in itself, as was telling themselves that they were going to be successful. These findings provide evidence to support the growing argument that there is considerable variation in the way in which athletes represent imagery (Nordin & Cumming, 2005a; Short

et al., 2004) and self-talk (Hardy, 2006) to serve different functions. Moreover, in

accordance with the triple code theory (Ahsen, 1984) it is likely that the meaning that golfers attach to their images is more important than their specific content. It would appear logical to also apply these theoretical principles to self-talk (Hardy, 2006).

A particularly interesting finding from the current investigation was that a number of the golfers reported the usage of imagery and self-talk together to address two or more functions. For example, a number of the golfers reported using imagery to plan golf strokes whilst at the same time, using self-talk to maintain their psychological state. This was of importance as much of the rationale for combining the strategies in the past has been based

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on the suggestion that they could work well together in serving the same functions (Hardy et

al., 2001a). This finding may have potential practical implications, as with further research,

sport psychologists may be able to recommend the use of the strategies in this way.

The influence of functional requirements on golfers‟ use of imagery and self-talk supported the second stage of Fournier et al “s model of imagery (2008). This stage proposes that the functions served by imagery determine preferences for the way in which images are represented. Findings from this study once again supported a further extension of this theoretical model to encompass self-talk, as preferences for imagery and self-talk use in combination and isolation were formed depending on the function being served and the way in which the strategies would need to be represented to serve them.

The final finding of interest was that the temporal patterning of the golfers‟ combined imagery and self-talk use was not as „straight forward‟ as has been alluded to in the extant literature (Cumming et al., 2006; Hall et al., 1997). In the few studies that have examined the performance effects associated with the „combined‟ use of imagery and self-talk, the participants were simply told to employ the strategies together. However, findings from the present study revealed that a number of the golfers, particularly when planning shots, frequently used imagery first closely followed by the use of self-talk. As referred to in the review of literature, this sequential use of the strategies is supported by Paivio‟s dual coding theory (1971), which argues that activity in either the verbal or visual channels can induce activity in the other as they are interconnected. Again, this finding may have implications for