THE ATTITUDE-BEHAVIOR GAP

There is an acknowledged controversy over the attitude-behavior link and the idea that attitudinal components alone may not accurately predict actual behavior and that favorable attitudes towards the environment are not always indicative of high levels of environmental knowledge or concordant behavior (Barber et al., 2014; Diamantopoulos et al., 2003). This phenomenon, where positive intentions formed by congruent attitudes, values, and beliefs are not actualized into behavior, is at times referred to as the attitude- behavior gap (Kollmuss & Agyeman 2002; Pickett-Baker & Ozaki, 2008). As previous research has concluded, increased knowledge and possession of information will typically lead to a concordant action. But in some cases, providing information on

environmental issues does not always result in increased pro-environmental attitudes or behaviors (Pickett-Baker & Ozaki, 2008, Pooley & O’Connor, 2000).

Mainieri et al. (1997) used the TPB, which posits that attitudes and intentions are significant predictors of behavior, to investigate the variables that predicted or influenced the purchase of green or environmentally-friendly products. With the self-reported purchase of a green product as the dependent variable in the study, awareness, beliefs, attitudes, and demographics were examined as predictor variables. Acknowledging the inconsistency in research on pro-environmental attitudes and concordant behaviors, especially in studies looking at consumers’ self-reported behavior and their relating pro- environmental beliefs and attitudes, Mainieri et al. (1997) found supporting evidence of the attitude-behavior gap. Using a systematic random sample of individual households in the United States, their findings showed that a majority of respondents said they would pay more for environmentally-friendly grocery products and had a higher level of environmental concern, but less than 20% reported actual purchases of these types of goods (Mainieri et al., 1997).

Similarly, based on the results from a survey of supermarket shoppers in the U.K., Pickett-Baker and Ozaki (2008) supported the existence of a gap occurring between consumers’ beliefs and behaviors regarding green product consumption. Their evidence refutes popular theory that an individuals’ behavior is determined by his or her belief that the outcome of a particular behavior and the existing social norms will directly affect their behavioral intention (Ajzen, 1991). The conclusion made here is that what people believe is a good idea or a positive value does not always predict what they actually do, especially in an environmental context. Barr et al. (2011) found that individuals who

were committed to supporting the environment and sustainability in the context of the home and that held strong beliefs towards sustainability practices did not extend those behaviors to a greater context outside the home. Positive attitude towards green behavioral intentions stopped once it extended beyond the home environment.

In a foundational study aimed at exploring the behaviors that affect the ecological health of the world and to better understand the attitudes and knowledge of the population regarding their intentions towards sustainable behaviors, Maloney and Ward (1973) developed a novel “ecology scale” to measure attitudes and knowledge. The scale consisted of four subscales relating to ecological issues: verbal commitment, actual commitment, affect—or the degree of an individual’s emotionality, and knowledge. Results of their study showed that most respondents had a high degree of verbal

commitment and affect, with lower levels of actual commitment and knowledge. In other words, people were saying they were interested in and willing to engage in or contribute to pro-ecological behavior, but did little and knew even less about the topic (Maloney & Ward, 1973).

Tanner (1999) reiterates that previous assertions made in environmental

psychology research concentrated too heavily on environmental concern and attitudes as predictors of environmental behavior, and challenges the assumption that by changing people’s attitudes and beliefs through education and information will help change their behavior: “a major limitation of this research is the neglect of a behavior’s embeddedness in cultural structures entailing a host of behavioral barriers and constraints. In particular, little attention has been paid to the factors that are necessary for an individual’s ability to participate in a specific action” (Tanner, 1999, p.146). This observation suggests that

some behaviors or actions cannot be realized, despite the direct intention, because of external constraints such as the lack of access to public transportation or living in a food desert. Ultimately, the gaps in the attitude-behavior relationship that Tanner (1999) identified were manifested in conditional or situational variables, which could range widely from income level to weather.

Addressing the attitude-behavior gap specifically, Kollmuss and Agyeman (2002) explore some of the overlapping factors that shape and influence pro-environmental behavior, both positively and negatively. These include demographics, external factors such as economic, social and cultural factors, and internal factors like motivation, knowledge on the subject, awareness, values, attitudes, emotion, locus of control, responsibilities, and priorities. Though the model was helpful in identifying and

specifying where and how attitude-behavior gaps exist in sustainable behavior, it has not been tested and remains in a conceptual stage (Kollmuss & Agyeman, 2002).

But not all research on consumer behavior and consumption as it relates to sustainability uses the TPB and other traditional attitude-behavior models. Though the attitude-behavior relationship is the most widely applied theoretical framework, alternative behavior models and theories have started to emerge in the discussion on sustainability. These new, alternative theories are addressed below.