The Interview Process

The interview with the managers involved the following process. The introduction stage involved explaining the format of the interview and a re-cap on the purpose of the research. The RGT stage involved initially explaining to the manager the purpose of the Enquire Within software and how to follow the process dictated by the software package, discussed in section 4.6. The manager then proceeded to follow the process using the computer technology and so developed their construct sets and rated their constructs against each of the six elements (as discussed in section 4.11). This stage had on average a thirty five to forty minute duration. The process of CSR stage involved the completion of the attitude survey, discussed in section 4.7. The final stage involved the completion of the open ended question, to ascertain what determined success of CSR for this manager. The duration of the complete interview was between 60-90 minutes, with the manager’s engagement with the Enquire Within computer technology accounting for a large proportion of the total interview time. Without exception, the interviews followed this pattern.

4.11.2.2 The Selection of managers for inclusion in the research study

As stated above, it was decided to interview twenty five to thirty managers for inclusion in the study. A number of factors were taken into account in relation to the selection of these respondents. These included:

1. The profile should not over-represent managers of a particular size of firm or industry sector.

2. The key issue was to keep to the research question of the study, to explore what is the cognitive link between CSR and strategy among managers, and who were the decision makers in relation to CSR, in their firms.

118 | P a g e Returning to the examination of previous studies using the RGT, discussed above, a number of approaches were applied, in the selection of respondents for inclusion in the various studies. For example, a study using a database of two hundred small business owners, who had undertaken a short course on general management, and who fulfilled the conditions of the study, were recruited for inclusion, with thirty of these managers invited to participate (Fassin et al. 2011). In another study, eighteen junior to senior project managers were chosen, within the construction industry, for inclusion in the study, which fulfilled the conditions of the study (Song and Gale 2008). From a review of management research (included in Appendix 14), the average number of interviews, as stated above, was sixteen.

For this study, four key databases were included, members of Business in the Community (BITC) Ireland, as these member companies would have personnel responsible for CSR within their firms. Chambers Ireland (South-Dublin) also provided a listing of companies who were actively involved in CSR and these related to small, medium and large companies. In addition, Deloitte (an accounting and management consultancy company), who have connections with the education institute where the researcher works (ITT, Dublin), provided a listing of clients, who were deemed active in CSR. The research once started, also used snowballing, where other respondents were identified and suggested by the manager, at the end of the interview.

Individuals were contacted on the likelihood that they were responsible for the CSR function in their firms. In some cases, BITC, Deloitte and Chamber Ireland made the first contact, to give credibility to the researcher and a general introduction. This was followed by an email and subsequent phone call by the researcher. In many cases, the relationship did not develop past the initial first email stage, the reason given being the lack of time to devote to the study or that the manager did not have the level of influence, in relation to CSR decisions alluded to at the outset. The result was a list of individuals meeting the criteria from a variety of backgrounds.

4.11.2.3 Determining the Sample size

Given the requirements of the study, the nature of the contribution to knowledge intended and the time available (of both researcher and manager) the researcher aimed to study twenty five and thirty interviews, with the final number totalling thirty one managers, agreeing to participate in the study, using a one-stage process. This sample size has produced valid contributions to the literature to date, across the strategic management field, as depicted above, it would be deemed to reflect an above average sample size.

119 | P a g e 4.11.2.4 Creating the research instrument – the derivation of elements

The literature review formed the foundations of the study, in terms of determining the elements for use in the RGT study. Therefore, the literature review had two key purposes in this study, the derivation of elements to be used in the RGT, which focused on how CSR is understood in the literature and the formulation of the CSR/strategy Interpretative Guide. It was important to ensure prior to the derivation of the final listing of elements that they were in line with the guidance given in the literature (Stewart and Stewart 1981). Table 4.9 highlights how these issues, postulated by Stewart and Stewart, were incorporated into the element listing.

Table 4.9 Derivation of Elements

Consideration How the elements of this study lined up

“Discrete” The six element chosen were specific and identifiable as a

key component of CSR, as dictated by the literature, in the analysis of definitions of CSR in Chapter 2 and Appendix 1.

“Homogeneous” All elements could be grouped under the general concept

of CSR, as dictated by the literature review. For example, all six elements were derived from the key components of CSR, as postulated in the literature review, in Chapter 2 and developed in Chapter 3.

“Not be a sub-set of other elements” The elements were clear, concise specific and discrete and did not overlap in understanding. For example, the element of Stakeholder Responsibility does not overlap with Corporate Values, in understanding.

“ Should not be evaluative” Each element was clearly defined and understood, it did not in itself, as an element, appraise degrees of

conformity. For example, Corporate Values was not depicted as Strong Corporate Values, where the evaluative aspect of the element would make it unacceptable.

Source: Compiled by the author from Stewart and Stewart (1981)

The above issues depicted in Table 4.9 were taken into consideration in defining the elements, and it is claimed that such considerations are necessary, in order to ensure the elements covered the area under study (in this case CSR and strategy) in a suitable manner, that are deemed reliable (Marsden and Littler 2000).

120 | P a g e 4.11.2.5 The Piloting Phase of the Interview

To test the structure of the repertory grid instrument formulated, two sets of pilot interviews were undertaken and reviewed. The primary set (two interviews) resulted in a major re-evaluation of the approach, in relation to the purpose and process elements. Initially, both purpose and process elements were included in the element set, presented to managers. Such an array of elements proved very cumbersome, in terms of the number of elements and the kind of constructs that were derived. The elements in relation to process reflected, for example, a proactive approach, dialogue, and prioritising stakeholder and tended to push the results into a planned classical approach.

On reflection, it was felt that the purpose of CSR supported a cognitive research approach, exploring the managers understanding of CSR and how it interacts with strategy. The process of CSR within the firm was very clear to the manager - “this is how we do CSR around here” – and, on reviewing the second set of pilot interviews, an attitude survey was included, which contained an open ended question on the process used and this captured this process in its entirety. The review of this first set of pilot interviews resulted in elements being redefined to include only purpose elements and so ensured the final set of six elements were easy to understand and provided a more discrete, clear and concise understanding of the elements, in line with Table. 4.9 above.

Six elements were finally agreed upon and reflected the key aspects of CSR (in relation to the purpose of CSR) derived from the literature review in Chapter 2 and 3, and described as stakeholder responsibility, discretionary initiatives, corporate values, ethical conduct, mutual benefits and effective action. It is suggested that six element provide “sufficient variability in the triadic elicitation process” (Hunter 1997, p.182). Therefore, the subsequent pilot interviews (three in number) concentrated on the six elements of CSR, in relation to the purpose of CSR. These pilot interviews resulted in a more manageable interview structure, in terms of understanding, time taken to complete, improved consistency in construct elicitation and consequently opportunities for more reliable data.

On completion of this second set of pilot interviews (consisting of three interviews), a further analysis was undertaken to ensure the structure of the repertory grid continued to reflect the aims of the study. This second set of pilot interviews were reviewed with the supervision team and were considered to be representative of the managers under study, exploring the managers’ understanding of CSR and how it interacts with strategy. It was decided to include the attitude survey at this point, in addition to an open ended question

121 | P a g e (ascertaining what determined success in CSR for the manager); while this information could be gleaned from the pilot interviews undertaken, it was felt going forward that this information needed to be more firmly placed, to ensure the process of CSR and further context was included, as a core part of methodology. Since no further changes were made to the elements following these pilot interviews, these three interviews from the second pilot interviews, were included in the final thirty one interviews undertaken.

In addition, it was agreed with the manager from the outset of the interview, both at the pilot phase and the final interview phase, that the information in relation to the total interview (RGT, attitude survey, open ended question and any additional gleaned from the interview) would be kept totally confidential. In the case of three interviews, a confidentiality agreement was signed. There was no issue among the managers interviewed, in relation to publishing the name of their firm, as long as no association between the name of the firm and the actual interview was possible. Therefore, for the purposes of this study, the interviews are numbered one to thirty one, in the order in which they occurred and a listing of the participating firms are listed in alphabetical order in Appendix 15.

4.11.2.5.1 The Interviews – the RGT Component

At the commencement of the interview, the purpose and format of the interview and the process of completing the RGT phase was explained to the manager. A laptop computer was used to run the repertory grid application – Enquire Within (as discussed above). These elements were presented to the manager in triadic form. In other words, taking one triad at a time, the manager was asked to identify something that two of the elements had in common, that made them different from the third element. The result of the exercise was the formulation of a bi-polar construct and working through the element combinations, a number of bi-polar constructs were created which in the end, identified the wider cognitive space of the manager, in terms of the six elements of the study. The researcher’s role was to guide the manager on the functionality of the application from the outset. The managers very quickly created their own datasets (constructs), prompted only by the element triads. Figure 4.1 outlines the construct sets of Interview 6.

122 | P a g e Figure 4. 1 Construct sets derived from Interview 6

Source: compiled from interview with manager from Interview 6

Figure 4.1 outlines the construct sets derived from Interview 6. This construct set was derived from the triading exercise described above and depicts the dataset of the manager interviewed. The second stage of the interview involved the rating of the elements against each construct. The manager was required to consider one construct at a time and rate all the six elements in turn against this construct; this process has been referred to as a “row- wise rating”, with the manager being guided through the process by the Enquire Within software, which presenting the results in the form of an array (Fassin et al. 2011, p.432).

This representation of results created the physical representation of the manager’s cognitive structure, in terms of the elements presented to them and the constructs they created in stage 1 of the interview, this information is presented in a dendogram. Figure 4.2 highlights an example of a dendogram, for Interview 6.

123 | P a g e Figure 4.2 Dendogram derived from Interview 6

Source: compiled from interview with manager from Interview 6

Figure 4.2 outlines the dendogram for Interview 6. The dendogram depicts the graphical representation of the constructs derived in stage 1 of the RGT phase of the interview and the rating of constructs against each element. This dendogram is, therefore, a numerical dataset, which is ordered according to the strength of association between constructs and also between elements. The findings emerging from this process are discussed in Chapter 5.

Throughout the interview, there was a high degree of personal focus upon the elements, as they are presented to the manager, thus leading to the formulation of the overall replication of the manager’s cognitive space. It is contended that the interview stage is of paramount importance, in determining the cognitive structure of the manager (Fassin et al. 2011).

Therefore, given the lower risk of researcher bias from the researcher, in relation to the use of the repertory grid interview and the personal focus of the interview, in building up the mental space of the manager, this made the RGT a suitable research tool, in linking the theory of CSR and cognitive space of the managers’ interviewed. The key aim of such

124 | P a g e an approach being to assist in determining how a manager understands CSR, and how CSR interacts with the strategy of the firm (Alexander, 2010).

4.11.2.5.2 The Interview - The attitude survey component

As stated previously, an attitude survey was also included in the interview, to capture the process of CSR, as outlined by the manager. The attitude survey followed the RGT completion phase of the interview. Once the rating scales were explained to the manager, there was no interference by the interviewer in completing the survey. At the end of the ten rating scales, there was an open ended question included, to capture the actual process of CSR used by the manager in their firm.

4.11.2.5.3 The interview – The open ended question

This question asked managers to state what determined success in CSR in their firms. This open ended question represented a form of laddering down, in that it identified in a consistent way across the thirty one interviews, what the actual benefits of CSR were for the managers interviewed. The open ended question was asked at the end of the interview, after the completion of the attitude survey, to elicit what these managers considered successful outcomes of CSR.

4.11.3 Recording the data derived from each interview

The data derived from the research was recorded in a number of ways, to ensure the information was recorded in a rigorous, thorough and consistent manner, across the thirty one interviews. As discussed above, initially, a pro-forma document was formulated to record all data pertaining to each interview. This pro-forma document consisted of four sections, formulated to record the preliminary desk research prior to the interview and the interview details and an initial analysis of the findings. A copy of the pro-forma document appears in Appendix 17.

The actual RGT results were recorded using the Enquire Within software described above. The results of the construct construction and categorization of constructs are recorded on a dendogram, a graphical representation of the RGT results. A copy of a dendogram, given as an example, is contained in Chapter 5.

An individual mind map was constructed for each manager, to bring together a summary of the datasets for each interview and a copy of the complete set of mind maps appear in Appendix 18. An example and explanation of such a mind map is also included, in Chapter 5. The aim of these mind maps was to capture (on one page) a summary of the

125 | P a g e content of the interview, in particular, the company context, the core theme of the manager and the purpose and process of CSR, pertaining to each manager interviewed.

On completion of the thirty one interviews, it was possible to map the results from each interview against the CSR/strategy Interpretative Guide. The aim of this exercise was to highlight how CSR interacts with strategy for the managers interviewed and depicts what form this interaction takes. Appendix 21 contains the results of this application process.

The final stage of the analysis involved mapping the findings from the thirty one interviews along the Whittington Generic Strategy Perspective Quadrant Model. The aim of this exercise was to highlight the predominant strategy school of the manager and core theme profiles for each manager. The results of this exercise are contained in Figure 6.1 in Chapter 6.