Theoretical approaches to the study of consumer behaviour behaviour

There are two main streams of research for studying consumer behaviour (Figure 2.1): the cognitive and the behaviourist (Foxall, 1999). In recent years the application of behaviour analytic principals to consumer behaviour, as well as the theory underpinning these applications, has become more systematic (DiClemente and Hantula, 2003). However, cognitive theorising remains the dominant perspective in consumer behaviour research (Foxall, 1999; Erasmus et al., 2001; DiClemente & Hantula, 2003). The following section concentrates on describing the main assumptions of each of these approaches. Although both approaches can potentially cover both individual and family decision making, behaviourist research tends to concentrate on individual consumer behaviour whereas cognitive approaches have been applied on to both individual and family consumer behaviour research.

Figure 2. 1: Two main theoretical approaches to the study of consumer behaviour (Source: Foxall, 1999)

Behaviouristic

Behaviouristic CognitiveCognitive Consumer

behaviour models Consumer behaviour models

2.4.1. Behavioural theories

The behavioural school of thought (or behaviourism) owes its roots to logical positivism, which holds that the objective and empirical methods of the physical sciences can be applied to the analysis of consumer behaviour (Foxall, 1993b; Eysenck and Keane, 1990).

Logical positivists argue that theories are only to be justified by an appeal to observed facts and that theoretical constructs are meaningful only to the extent that they can be observed (Eysenck and Keane, 1990). Behaviourists maintain that only observable variables, such as the stimulus presented to the organism and any consequent response to that stimulus, should be considered (Morris, 1974; Skinner, 1974; Foxall, 1990; Eysenck and Keane, 1990;

Groome and Dewart, 1999). Skinner (1974), based on logical positivism and Watson’s (1913) behaviourism, adopted a radical behaviourism perspective. Unlike logical positivism, which did not accept introspection as a scientific practice, radical behaviourism does not deny the importance of the intrapersonal processes, but rather questions whether what is felt or introspectively observed is the cause of behaviour.

The application of behaviourism principals to consumer behaviour has been undertaken by authors such as Foxall (Foxall, 1990; Foxall, 1993a; Foxall, 1993b; Foxall, 1999). Relying heavily on a critique of Skinner’s (1974) radical behaviourism, Foxall’s Behavioural Perspective Model of purchase and consumption postulates that the aspects of consumer behaviour are predictable from two dimensions or situational influences: the consumer behaviour setting and the reinforcement signalled by the setting.

2.4.2. Cognitive theories

Purchasing leisure travel by the means of electronic commerce is a complex action. The conceptual model adopted in the research postulates that purchasing by means of e-commerce is the result of the cumulative adoption of three elements (the computer, the Internet and the purchasing over the Internet). Additionally, the adoption is also influenced by the purchasing and travelling patterns of the individuals, which the literature has also shown to be a complex phenomenon. Foxall (1993b) argued that in the study of complex actions it is

“impossible to ascertain the contingencies that control response with the accuracy and precision available to the scientist who can assiduously control and monitor both dependent and independent variables” (p. 116).

Hence, the complexity of the behaviour being researched suggests that behaviouristic models are not suitable for achieving the objectives of the research.

Given the above, this research adopts a cognitive approach to the study of consumer adoption of electronic commerce in the purchasing of leisure travel. The cognitive approach is well established in consumer behaviour and, despite criticisms of cognitive theories, most researchers recognise the relevance of intrapersonal processes in consumer behaviour. Even behaviourists such as Foxall recognise the value in cognitive models and argue that behaviouristic models are a complement rather than a substitute to cognitive theories (Foxall, 1999).

The most widely accepted and influential models of consumer behaviour derive in large part from cognitive psychology, which has assumed the status of the dominant paradigm (Foxall, 1990). Cognitive psychology originated from the failure of behaviourism to satisfactorily measure the science of human cognition (Eysenck and Keane, 1990).

Cognitive psychology is the discipline that studies the way in which the brain processes information, that is, it focuses on the way individuals take in information from the outside world, how they make sense of that information and how they make use of it (Groome and Dewart, 1999). Cognition refers to the different kinds of information processing that occurs at different stages (Groome and Dewart, 1999; Eysenck and Keane, 1990). Hence, the cognitive approach views humans as rational animals who systematically utilise and process the information made available to them (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975).

Cognitivism postulates that observed behaviour is explained by intrapersonal information processing (Foxall, 1990), whereby people are viewed as autonomous, intentional beings who interact with the external world (Eysenck and Keane, 1990). Initially, researchers modelled the information process as ‘input – processing – learning and memory storage – retrieval – thinking’ (Eysenck and Keane, 1990; Groome and Dewart, 1999). However, the acceptance of this (bottom-up) sequence as the unique possibility assumes (wrongly) that stimuli impinge on an inactive and unprepared organism (Eysenck and Keane, 1990).

Bearing in mind that information processing is conducted by an active organism which has past experiences, most modern theorists assume that information processing will involve

stimulus driven processing (bottom up) as well as concept driven processing (top-down).

This second type of processing is based on the generation of schemas acquired from past experience, which are sent down the nervous system for comparison with the incoming stimulus (Groome and Dewart, 1999). To a certain extent, this assumption that learning from past experiences influences information processing (and thus behaviour) is similar to that of behaviourism. However, while behaviourism focuses on the effects of this learning on behaviour, for cognitivists the relevance of past experience is the extent to which learning influences information processing.

Foxall (1990) argued that the strengths of the cognitivism as an explanatory device of consumer behaviour are fourfold:

• Its closeness with the common-sense explanations of everyday discourse make it an intuitively attractive means of offering explanations of everyday behaviours (such as purchasing and consumption);

• The ability of consumers to describe their experiences in terms of their attitudes, wants, needs and motives ensures that explanation proceeds in the same terms as the description of what is explained;

• It brings a measure of unity and consensus to the field; and

• The extensive use made by other social science and humanities disciplines of cognitive explanation has assisted the conceptual development of this line of consumer research by making possible the borrowing of theoretical and methodological inputs.

However, Foxall (1990) also criticised cognitive consumer behaviour theories due to the untestability of many of the propositions and the fact that some of the depictions rely on a high level of abstraction. Additionally, he argued that the low correlational consistency between measures of the components of the theories and overt purchase choice confirms their limited ability to describe or predict actual consumer behaviour. A logical consumer decision-making process, an assumption underlying cognitive models, has also been criticised. Erasmus et al. (2001), in their critique of consumer decision-making models, pointed out three main criticisms of these models:

• An assumption of rational consumer decision-making behaviour;

• A generalisation of the decision making process;

• The limitations resulting from a positivistic approach (p. 84-85).

In summary, the cognitive approach (adopted in this research) focuses on how people think about things and what factors influence their decisions by understanding of interpersonal processes. The behaviourist approach attempts to understand how people behave in specific situations by placing emphasis on the environment as an explanatory variable.