Theoretical framework

In social-cultural theory, learning occurs in a social world. Thus, the theory is based on the concept that human activities occur in cultural contexts, which are mediated by psychological and physical tools (Kaptelinin, 2005). The cultural tools are historical and do not remain static. They continuously change because members bring their own understanding and interpretation of cultural expectations (Hashim & Jones, 2007). Therefore, the use of social-cultural theory especially the Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) in this study is vital since the computers are considered as historical tools. Probably, in the past the chalk board was taken as a tool suitable for mathematics instruction in the classroom. However, historically the chalk board was replaced with computers in the present era, to meet the expectations of Digital Natives. For this reason, I used a theory of social-cultural, particularly Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) to guide me in this study and in order to reduce bias.

CHAT stems from the Social-cultural theory of Vygotsky’s assumption that mental activity is mediated by culturally-derived physical and psychological tools such as instruments, signs, language, machines and computers. Vygotsky (1978) postulated that the use of tools is essential in the learning process and formulated the tool- mediated model in a form of the triangle. The model has mediating artifacts, subject and object. In his view, any action, which is taken, for example teaching and learning of mathematics in this study, consists of subject, object and mediation artifacts. An artifact is defined as something manufactured by men for a specific reason (Fiorani et al, cited in Fiorani, 2013), and which allow men to improve their logical reasoning and cognitive activities (Norman cited in Fiorani, 2013). Vygotsky is concerned with artifacts, which may enhance the mediating activity of a cognitive process between

subjects and objects “like words, tools, and nonverbal signs” that provide learners with ways to become more efficient in their learning and problem-solving (Vygotsky, 1978: 127). As CHAT when applied as lens for research, uses the whole work activity as a unit of analysis, the activity is divided into analytical components of subject, object, and tool (Hasan cited in Hashim & Jones, 2007). In this application of CHAT, the subject is the person being studied, the object is the intended activity, and the tool is the mediating device by which the action is accomplished (Ibid). Leont’ev (1981) expanded on Vygotsky’s model and included the concept of collective activity, individual action and operation. Engestrom (1987) built on both Vygotsky and Leont’ev models and generated a new model, which includes two additional units of analysis that have an indirect effect on work activities. The first is rules, considered as sets of conditions that help to guide subjects on how and why to act toward an object for social conditioning. Rules are social norms that regulate behavior. The second is the division of labour, which defines how tasks, actions, operations, and responsibilities are shared among the workers as they engage in activity of the community. A community is the social and cultural group to which subjects belong. Both elements affect the community in which groups of activities and teams of workers are associated and can be analysed (Cole & Engeström, 1993; Hyland, 1998; Verenikina, 2001). These concepts are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Extended CHAT model of Engestrom (2001a)

The link between the individual and their environment represented by the component of community. The link between subject and community is mediated by rules and the

relationship between object and community is mediated by the division of labour (Hettinga, 1998). The object is considered as the motivating influence behind the subjects’ participation in the activity. The components of an activity system shape human interactions in their environment. CHAT is considered as a flexible and developing theoretical approach (Kaptelinin, 2005), which has the ability to address separations between individual and collective action, which informs educational research (Roth & Lee, 2007). CHAT is used by the educational researchers due to its holistic richness in terms of understanding how people do things together with the assistance of sophisticated tools in complicated and dynamic environments (Crawford & Hasan, 2006; Hakkinen & Korpela, 2006; Liaw, Huang & Chen, 2007; Zurita & Nussbaum, 2007).

When applying Engeström’s CHAT model in the use of ICT in this study, I interpreted mediation tools as the ICT infrastructure (computer, computer laboratories, internet, and others), which mediate mathematics concepts in the classroom. The study intended to determine whether lecturers use these ICT mediation tools for mathematics instruction. The lecturers and students are considered as the subjects who could use the ICT mediation tools to mediate mathematics concepts. The objects are perceptions of the subjects, who are participating in this study. The community involves ministry officials, college principals, lecturers, parents, and students, who may have positive perceptions towards the use of ICT in the classroom. The division of labour in this study is interpreted as tasks which every member of the community (college) already mentioned plays in order for a computer to be used in the mathematics classroom. For example, Malawi Ministry of Education officials have to perform tasks such as providing computers, support, funding, and ICT resources. The lecturers have to perform the task of using the computer in the mathematics instruction. The parents have to perform the task of providing mediation tools at home for students practice using ICT tool at home and school. The students’ task is to practice and perfect the use of ICT mediation tools at home and in the classroom.

CHAT is also used to examine data collection and analysis. In this study, the researcher through CHAT analysed institutional, school, student, and family factors. These were taken as tasks (division of labour) during analysis. For instance, the theory revealed whether ministry officials fulfill their task of supplying ICT tools to the

colleges. As such, I suggest that the theory will guide me to examine if these tasks are taken care of by each member of the community by employing a pragmatist paradigm. As a pragmatist paradigm is concerned with how people feel and think in the circumstances they found themselves. Therefore, pragmatist and CHAT will guide me to measure on how lecturers and students feel about the tasks, which each member of the community is performing for the smooth implementation of ICT in the mathematics classroom.

CHAT has been applied in different fields almost around the world. For instance, Bodker (1990) used CHAT to analyse levels of interaction between information developers and users. Fjeld et al. (2002) used CHAT in their study of urban development, Korpela, Mursu, and Soriyan (2002) Information Systems Development as a work activity in context Spasser (2002) digital libraries, and Tewsbury and Mustaine (2003) law enforcement. Scanlon and Issroff (2005) examined current use of learning technology in higher education. Hakkinen and Korpela (2006) used CHAT to understand the practices of information management within a maternity care activity network and Liaw et al (2007) used CHAT to investigate the factors influencing the attitudes of learners towards e/learning. The use of CHAT has dramatically increased in education research over the last two decades as Nussbaumer (2012) suggested. In 2005, for example, the theory was discovered to have been increased for over 200 (Roth & Lee, 2007). Nussbaumer (2012) in her peer-reviewed studies found that CHAT has been applied from kindergarten to twelfth grade (k-12) in education for 10 years (2000-2009). She reviewed 1577 journal articles that applied CHAT as theory that underpinned their studies. Furthermore, out of 1577 journals, she read and analysed 129 studies in full to find which actually used CHAT in relation to k-12. From her analysis, she categorised 129 articles that related to CHAT as follows (see Table 2):

Table 2: Summary of Articles using CHAT as Len (Nussbaumer, 2012)

Category Number of articles

Partial use of CHAT 10

Commentary/opinion 22

CHAT used by authors for the basis of own model 5

Pedagogy and teaching practice 34

“Activity” only; on CHAT 8

Teacher education 10

Themes, curriculum, system-wide k-12 effort 11

Foreign languages 2

Qualified articles 21

Total 129

Drawing from how these researchers employed CHAT as framework in their studies, I decided to utilize the framework to explore the perceptions of lecturers and students on the use of ICT in the mathematics classroom using mixed methods design.