As noted above, the theoretical framework of this study is derived from the Adaptive Structuration Theory (AST) developed by DeSanctis and Poole (1994). This is because the rationale of AST covers the majority of tenets of most of the diffusion and infusion theories as illustrated in Figure 2.1.
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Figure 2.1: Adaptive structuration theory as applied to the management of educational services management
Source: Adapted from DeSanctis and Poole (1994:132).
As indicated in Figure 2.1, the academic/industry collaboration refers to a structured social practice of interdependence between educational institutions and industry that needs the results or outcomes of these institutions (DeSanctis & Poole, 1994; Hoerup, 2001). The industry referred to represents society in this study. In this practice of interdependence, ICT actions that support the delivery of educational services are considered as activities that sustain the relationship (collaboration) between society and academia. From society, this practice is expressed in the form of curricula activities that society recommends to be carried out by educational institutions in order to develop competences, which are relevant to addressing societal needs (Zhang & Wang, 2011). Examples of practices that should be carried out to support a successful collaboration include cooperative gathering of information from society that should be used to design the curriculum needed to produce graduates who have the skills and knowledge relevant to solving the development problems of the society from which the graduates were drawn (Gupta & Bostrom, 2009). This academic/industry collaboration is formed from a combination of an
Advanced Information Technology Structure and Spirit (enterprise system) Technology Infrastructure Academic/Industry Collaboration Joint Outcomes Appropriation Delivery Structures External Environment Structure Educational Organisation Structure Educational Process Structure of Academic/ Industry Collaboration Emergent Forms of Educational Methods
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external environment structure, an educational organisation structure, as well as the structure and spirit of the, introduced advanced information technology and technology infrastructure (DeSanctis & Poole, 1994).
The external environmental structure refers to the nature of societal needs, which education is expected to help solve. In this study, societal needs and problems were regarded as those expected to be adequately addressed by the graduates of the educational process (Furumo & Melcher, 2006). They were considered to include both the needs that individual students expect to satisfy using acquired education (such as improved employability and productivity) and the needs of the general society (such as increased skilled and productive labour and student sponsor expectations) (Furumo & Melcher, 2006). Educational organisation structure refers to the way the management of educational services is arranged regarding faculties, departments, curricula programmes, course objectives, instructor preferences, ancillary services, and interdisciplinary cooperation (Bhattacherjee & Harris, 2009).
The structure of advanced information technology refers to the structural features of the adopted ICT, and its spirit refers to its intended purpose or use (DeSanctis & Poole, 1994; Lee, Lee & Kwon, 2005). In this study, the structural features were considered as the application modules offered by the adopted ICT to support the management of educational service delivery. Those individually considered included computer-based training applications, Internet and intranet connectivity, electronic mailing, integrated library information system for online catalogue and maintenance, applications such as word processing, spreadsheet processing, databases and other programmes that support the management of curricula and course design, class scheduling (timetabling), space and teaching staff requirements and allocation analysis, and student academic performance evaluation and analysis.
As stated in UNU University ICT Policy and Master Plan (2001, 2005), the spirit of the adopted ICT was regarded as its intended contribution to improving the effectiveness of managing educational services. Technology infrastructure refers to both the internal and external technologies (hardware and software), which are relevant to an educational institution (Sedera & Zakaria, 2008). It also includes
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current practices and equipment internal to the firm as well as the set of available technologies external to the firm (Li, 2009; Lin & Lin, 2008). In this study, technology infrastructure is conceived as the type of ICT equipment and programmes introduced to facilitate the management of educational services management. Educational organisation structure determines the nature of technology structure and infrastructure to adopt.
This academic/industry collaboration, formed out of the combination of each of these structural and spiritual aspects, is translated into practice by the appropriation and delivery structures and the educational process (DeSanctis & Poole, 1994). The education process takes place in the form of instructional services and all motivated and practical actions that facilitate the development of talents, skills and impartation and acquisition knowledge needed to address societal needs and problems (Bhattacherjee & Harris, 2009).
ICT is appropriated to facilitate this process through its information delivery structures (processes, applications and resources) (Lerouge & Webb, 2004). The appropriation takes place in the form of automating instructional designs, curriculum delivery and learning strategies (such as collaborative learning, hands-on experience, simulations, conceptual presentations, programmed instruction, real- world exposure, case studies, and so on). It also occurs in the form of instructor and learner utilisation of the introduced ICT tools (Lerouge & Webb, 2004). Appropriation is critical to the management of educational services because the effectiveness of this management depends on how appropriate the adopted delivery and learning ICT tools are (Gupta & Bostrom, 2009).
Emergent forms of educational method refer to the techniques of teaching and learning which come into being as a result of the adopted ICT. Examples of new educational methods include the use of computer-based teaching and learning, also called programmed instruction, internet-assisted or online teaching and learning, virtual team teaching and learning and others (Maznevski & Chudoba, 2000). Joint outcomes refer to mutually beneficial ends that emerge from the collaboration between educational institutions and society. Examples of common outcomes
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include employable and productive graduates and realisation of goals of education by both the institution that adopts ICT and society. While the goals of the institution may be in the form of academic excellence and contribution of societal development, those of any industry may be in the form of increased productivity, increased skilled and/or competent labour, increased economic or revenue growth and others related to staffing needs. The realisation of these goals is, however, only guaranteed when appropriation and delivery structures are correctly handled.
The theoretical framework explained above is used in this study because it can facilitate analysis of the nature of ICT introduced at UNU University, the effectiveness of the university’s educational services management and the role that ICT plays in enhancing this effectiveness, with a view to proposing strategies that the university can use to meet its stakeholder expectations as desired.
The framework provides a rationale covering a rich theoretical and methodological base for analysing the nature of ICT introduced at UNU University and its contribution to the management (planning, implementation, and control) of educational services, including facilitation of self-directed student learning. This rationale can also help suggest strategies of how UNU University employees and students may use ICT to realise their educational expectations as well as asses the perceived effectiveness of ICT equipment, programmes, and services on educational services management.