1. Introduction
1.6 Research Questions
2.1.6 Theory of Action for the Early Reading PD Interventions Study
The U.S. Department of Education commissioned the Early Reading PD Interventions study in order to be able to make better decisions about PD related to reading instruction. The study was carried out in 90 schools in six districts and incorporated 270 second – grade teachers. The aim was to test the effectiveness of two year long PD interventions and to see if there was improvement in teacher knowledge of reading principles, reading instruction and reading achievement. A model of the Theory of Action of Early Reading Interventions Study (Garet, et al., 2008) was developed based on the literature. It incorporated the characteristics of effective PD described by Garet, et al. (2001).
Garet, et al. (2001) developed a model based on data collected as part of a national evaluation of the Eisenhower PD Programme. The study examined the relationship between features of PD identified in the literature, as well as self-reported changes in teachers’ knowledge and skills and their teaching practices. The outcomes confirmed the importance of emphasis on subject-matter which led to changes in practices.
The model is composed of three structural features– duration, form of the activity, and collective participation, which relate to the organization of the PD and enable the implementation of the core features. The core features are – focus on content, i.e., focus on what is taught, active learning, i.e., opportunities to make a connection between practice and learning, and coherence among the goals of PD, the teachers individual goals as well as the assessments and standards that should guide teachers’ practices (Garet, et al., 2001). Structural activities of PD affect the core features and influence the teachers’ growth in knowledge and skills, which leads to changes in practices (Garet, et al., 1999). This development leads to improved student outcomes which is the main objective of PD (Birman, Desimone, Porter and Garet, 2000).
In the study carried out by Garet, et al. (2008) on 'The Impact of two Professional Development Interventions on Early Reading Instruction and Achievement' they developed a model, which included Key Features of Promising Professional Development. These key features were described in other studies (Garet, et al., 2001; Desimone, et al., 2002). The results of their study showed positive impact on the knowledge of scientific based reading instruction as well as on one of the reading practices taught. This model is relevant to my research since it incorporates the three core and three structural features found to be effective in the process of professional development. However, the model lacks beliefs and does not include negative or positive self efficacy.
Figure 3. Theory of Action for the Early Reading PD Interventions Study (Garet et al., 2008)
Structural features - The features that set the context for professional development
Duration- the time span allotted to the effort a well as the number of hours: Professional development should be carried out over a sustained period of time. This will allow discussion of conceptions, misconceptions or strategies and enables teachers to try out
Duration
Long time span Many hours
Form of activity
Linked to practiceCollective
participation
Teachers Key featuresof Promising Professional Development
Focus on content
Content students learnHow students learn
Teacher and
Coherence
Aligned with standards Consistent with teachergoals Consistent
Active learning
Practice Feedback Teacher knowledgeTeacher characteristic
Background, training, experience, prior professional developmennew practices in the classroom and get feedback (Garet, et al., 2001; Desimone, et al., 2002; Speck, 2002). Both the time span and the number of hours have been connected with opportunities to learn (O'Connnor, 1999; Cohen and Hill, 2001; Garet, et al., 2001). The duration of professional development is also related to how deeply teachers undergo change (Shields, Marsh and Adelman, 1998).
Form of activity (The organization): The reform type PD (using study groups, regular school day meetings during the process of classroom instruction or planning time), as opposed to traditional workshops or seminars, enables teachers to connect with classroom teaching. There is evidence that suggests that professional development activities related to daily school work will bring about active learning and lead to coherence of activities. The activities include mentoring, coaching or in-school discussion groups. They may lead to sustained professional development over time (Hargreaves and Fullan, 1992; Little, 1993; Garet, et al., 2001).
Collective participation: This incorporates groups of teachers either from the same school, department or at the same grade level or subject, so that collegial development can take place. This helps sustain change over time (Garet, et al., 2001). Support from fellow teachers, parents or school administrators, help teachers deal with difficult learning processes and affect their practices (Talbert and McLaughlin, 1993; Ball, 1996; Knapp, 1997; Elmore, 2002) This may lead to the maintenance of enthusiasm and brings about lasting change (Belcastro and Isaacson, 1992).
Core features – features that characterize the process that occurs during professional development
Focus on content: The focus is on what students need to learn and how they learn it. This will improve teachers’ knowledge and practices that will bring about improved student achievement (Kennedy, 1998; Cohen and Hill, 2001; Garet, et al., 2001). Corcoran (1995) suggests that if professional development focuses on subject- matter content and the way children learn, it may then lead to changes in teaching practices. Creation of new
instructional materials that meets student needs is a means of turning theory into practice (Louckes-Horsely, et al., 1998).
Opportunities for active learning: Active learning allows teachers to observe others and be observed while teaching (Garet, et al., 2001), and to apply what they are learning in their classrooms. It also includes simulations of teaching situations, collaboration and review of students’ work with other teachers, as well as reflection about their individual learning (Loucks-Horsely, et al., 1998; Garet, et al., 2001).
Coherence: In order to bring about changes in practices and beliefs, the teacher should undergo a learning experience that will enable him/her to relate it to the needs of the classroom as well as the curriculum (Garet, et al., 2001; Kinnucan-Welsh, Rosemary and Grogan, 2006). Standards, assessment and curriculum should provide coherent goals. If there is conflict teachers may not develop their teaching in the required direction (Grant, Peterson and Shojgreen-Downer, 1996). When teachers are afforded the opportunity to communicate with others who are involved in carrying out professional development activities coherence is felt (Lieberman and McLaughlin, 1992; Cohen and Hill, 1998; Garet, et al., 2001).
In their study, Garet, et al. (2001), measured the effects of professional development programmes, using the above mentioned features, on teachers’ knowledge and skills, and teaching practices. They found that duration of the professional development was significant since longer courses left a more sustained impact. Furthermore, if the focus is on subject matter (content) and teachers have opportunities to carry out practical ‘hands- on’ application (active learning) and incorporate what they learn into their teaching routine (coherence), knowledge and skills will improve. They also found that reform outcomes were better because they were taught over a longer period of time, and that focus on duration, collective participation and all three core features improve professional development. In addition, activities connected to teachers' past experiences, or aligned with efforts of reform which emphasize professional communication, apparently support changes in teaching practices.
Similarly, Desimone, et al. (2002) reported that they found that if focus was placed on certain practices teachers applied them in the classroom. Moreover, features such as active learning opportunities left an effect on teachers’ instruction, thereby increasing the effect of professional development particularly when the whole school staff participated. It should be noted, that this model does not relate to teachers' beliefs or the impact left on their self efficacy. These basic parameters of the process of PD are not included..